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THEMONGOLWARLORDS GENGHISKHANKUBLAIKHANHULEGUTAMERLANE DAVIDNICOLLEPlatesbyRICHARDHOOlfl71 twothousand• asiansteppesiorthwaveuponlerce,nomadicicrors.Thelast a' AtheseweretheMongols.Fearedbytheirasthe'devil'shorse-men',theyconqueredmost **sFFR28200( 4f7„“3*-.f--V„: 1 ofIranianoriginwhoinhabitedthenorthernslopesoftheCaucasusmountains.InthemountainsoftheCrimeanpeninsulatherewerestillpeopleofGermanicoriginknownasSaxiorGothi.Partlydescendedfrom thoseGothswhopassedthroughsouthernRussiaduringthefourthandfifthcenturyAgeofMigrations,theymayalsohaveincludedtheoffspringofAnglo-Saxonrefugeeswhohadsoughtserviceinthe ByzantinearmyaftertheNormanconquestofEngland.TheYoungTemuchin ThebirthandearlylifeofthemanlatertobeknownasGenghisKhanareshroudedinlegend.Hewasbornsomewherebetween1155and1167andwasgiventhenameTemuchinafteraTatarwhomhisfather,aminorMongol chiefoftheBorjiginclan,hadrecentlyslain.Temuchin,astheeldestson,tookchargeofthefamilywhenhisfatherwasinturnkilledbytheTatars.Temuchinwas,atthistime,onlyabouttwelveorthirteen yearsoldandhisfather'sfollowersrefusedtoserveamereboysohe,hismotherandbrotherswereforcedtoekeoutalivingasbesttheycould.Thesewerehardtimesandthe littlefamilyhadtoabandonthesteppesinfavouroftheforestedKentaimountains.Theretheycouldhuntandfishandavoidtheirfoes,whonowincludednotonlytheTatarsbutalso rivalMongolfamilieswhohadseizedleadershipoftheBorjiginclan.YetTemuchinalreadyshowedconsiderablepowersofleadership,aswellasruthlessness.Laterbiographersdescribedhimas tallforaMongol,stronglybuiltandwith'cat'seyes'.HecouldendureextremesofheatorcoldevenbetterthanmostMongolsandwasapparentlyindifferenttowounds. Temiichin'searlylifemadehim,infact,amanofiron.Earlyadventuresincludedskirmishingwithrivalsorrobbers,losingandthenrecoveringeightoftheninehorsesthatwere allhisfamilyowned,beingcaptured,escapingandfinallyclaimingthehandofBorte,daughterofachieftainandthegirlwhohadbeenpromisedtoTemuchinsince childhood.Butthatlayinthefuture.ForthepresentTemuchinandhisbrotherssimplyhadtosurvive.Thegrimnessoftheirwayof lifeisbetrayedintheepisodeinwhichTemuchinandhisyoungerbrotherQasar,thefinestarcherinthe littlegroup,ambushedandmurderedtheirownhalf-brotherBekter.ThiswasinrevengemerelyforhisstealingafishandasmallbirdthatTemuchinhadtrapped.ThoughBekterhadbeentheson ofanotherwife,theirmotherragedatthem:Oneofyouwasbornclutchingaclotofblackblood!TheotherislikethesavageQasardog afterwhichheisnamed!. . .Exceptforyourshadowsyouhavenocompanions,exceptforyourhorses'tailsyouhavenowhips. TheabandotiedtemplesofChi-neseCentralAsiahaveyieldedmanytreasuresofBuddhist art , includingfragmentsofpaintedfabric,manuscriptsandwall-paintings.Thispaintedfabric fromKhochoshowsVaish-ravanaand,thoughtheoriginalsubjectwasIndian,thestyleof paintingandthearmourarees-sentiallyTurco-Chinese.Herethefigurewearsaflexiblear- mourwithflap-likesleeves,basicallysimilartothoseperhaps feltorbuffleather'softarmours'wornbyMongolwar- riorsinlateijthand14thcen-turyIslamicart(WestBalmStateMuseums). HighintheKentaimountains,GenghisKhanprayedtoTangri,GodoftheEternalBlueShy,afterhiswifeBortehadbeencaptureddininganenemyraid. MostCentralAsianartfromthecenturiesbeforeGenghisKhan 'srisetopowershowsre-ligioussubjects,reflectingthemany faithsthatviedforthesoulsofTurksandMongols.Thiswall-painting inabasicallyChinesestyle,thoughwithstrongIndianandTurkish elements,isafineexampleofBuddhistartfromKumtaramadeattheheight ofTurkishL'ighurcivilization(WestBerlinStateMuseums). Yet,sheaccused,thebrotherscouldnotevenwinbackleadershipoftheirfather'sownclan.Temiichinwouldlaterdomuchmorethanretrievehisfather'sheritage,butinthemeantimeheslowlygathereda smallfollowingofwarriorsthroughhisskillasaraiderandbyhisloyaltytohisownmen.Hewould,theysaid,takethecoatoffhisbackandgive itaway.ThestoryofTemiichin'swifeBorteaddsawelcometouchofromancetoanotherwisesavagestory.Thetwofinallysucceededingettingwedataround thesametimethatTemiichinalliedhimselfwiththepowerfulKeraittribe.OnlyashortwhilelaterthelittlebandwasambushedbyapartyofraidersfromtheMerkittribe,Bortebeingcaptured.Temiichin escapedthoughthespeedofhishorseandbecauseoneofhismother'sservants,Qu'aqchin,hadheardthedrumminghoofbeatsoftheirenemy.HefledbacktotheKentaimountainswhere,climbingthehighestpeak, hethrewhiscapuponthegroundandputhisbeltaroundhisneckinsignofsupplication.ThenheprayedtoTangri,theEternalBlueSky:Thankstotheweasel'searandfox'seyeofoldQu'aqchin Ihaveescapedwithmylife.Ihavebeenabletoslipwithmyhorsealongthepathsofdeerandelk.Sosaying,Temiichinbowedninetimesandmadeanofferingof fermentedmare'smilk.(HeseemstohavehadaspecialreverenceforTangriandwouldpraytotheEternalBlueSkyatallcrucialmomentsinhis life.)AsuddenraidontheMerkitcampsoonrescuedBorteandfewcaredopenlytoexpressdoubtsaboutthefatherhoodofthesonsheboreninemonthsafterhercapture.SufficetosaythatJochi,thoughtheeldest ofGenghisKhan'ssons,wasneverpermittedtoplayaleadingroleinMongolaffairs.OneofTemiichin'sfirstmoveshadbeentotakehiswarriorcom- panionsandlessnoblybornnokerfollowersintoanalliancewithaleadinganti-Tatarchieftain,TogrulKhanoftheKeraittribe.Temiichinwas,ofcourse, stillaminorplayerinthetangledandbloodypoliticsofMongolia,buthesoonprovedhisworthtotheKerait.AtthesametimehewascarefulnottoalienateTogrul,despitehisownrapidlyincreasing prestige.Instead,theyoungMongolwarriorconcentratedondestroy-inghisfamily'shereditaryfoes,theTatars.InthishewashelpedbytheChinrulersofnorthernChina,whoweregrowingconcernedabout Tatarpower.In1199,withChinsupportandencouragement,theKeraitsandtheirallyTemiichininflictedaseriousdefeatontheover-weeningTatars.IngratitudetheChindeclaredTogrultobewang,or king,ofareasnorthofChina.ItmighthavebeenaroundthistimethatTemiichinadoptedthetitleofGenghis(moreaccuratelyChingizor'Oceanic')KhanofthepurelyMongoltribes. Genghis'snextfewcampaignsweretheoreticallyfoughtonbehalfoftheKerait.TheNaimanweredefeatedandTogrulbecamethemostpowerfulrulerinMongolia.Hisrealmwas,infact,tobethefoundationuponwhichGenghisKhan builthisownempire.Buttherewasstill18 muchhardfighting.Genghiswashimselfoncestruckintheneckbyanarrowthatcutanartery,whereuponJelme,oneofhisearliestcom-panions,tookhimfromthebattlefieldandsuckedtheclottedblooduntil thewoundclosed.DidJelmeknowthedamagethatabloodclotcouldcausetohisleader'sunconsciousbrain,orwasthisanotherexampleoftraditionalmedicinesavinga lifewithoutanyonequiteknowinghowthetreatmentworked?Jelme'sownstoryisaninterestingone.HewouldlaterbecomealeadingMongolgeneral,buthisfatherhadbeenahumble smithwhoarrivedinTemuchin'scamp'withhisbellowsonhisshoulders'.Thismancamefromanareathathad,forcenturies,beenfamousfor itssword-makersandhisrolemayhintatthevitalpartthearmourersofthemountainsplayedinGenghisKhan'srisetopower.Genghiswonanotherloyalfollowerataroundthistimewhen,after defeatingarivaltribeandhavingmassacredasuitablepercentageofitscaptivewarriors,theMongolleadercameacrossayoungbowmanwhohadoncebroughtdowntheKhan'sownhorse.Whentheyoungwarrior proudlyadmittedthisfact,Genghispardonedhim,renamedhimJebe,'thearrow',andthusearnedtheunswervingloyaltyofamanwhowouldeventuallybecomethemostillustriousofMongolmilitarycom- manders.WhentheTatarswerefinallyoverthrown,theirfatewaslessgenerous.Theentirepeoplewasvirtuallywipedout,withonlyafewsurvivorsbeinggraduallyabsorbedbytheMongoltribes. Itis,there-fore,ironicthattheTatarnamelivedon,tobegivenbymanyoftheMongols'foestotheMongolsthemselves.InEuropethenamewas corruptedtoTartar,perhapsimplyingthatthesesavageandunknowneasternconquerorshadsprungfromTartarus,anancientnameforHell.ThealmostinevitablebreakwiththeKeraitscamein1203. ItwasadecisivemomentinGenghisKhan'scareer.AKeraitambushwasbetrayedandafuriousbattlewassubsequentlyfoughtnearthehead- watersoftheKhalkariver.GenghisKhan'soutnumberedarmygottheworstofthisfightandhehadtoretreatnorth,towardsSiberiaandintotheinhospitablewastesofnorthernManchuria.Onlyafewfollowersnow remainedwithhim,buttheirloyaltywaseventuallytoberepaidahundred-fold.ForthepresenttheysimplyhadtosurviveuntiltheKeraitcoalitionofalliedtribesquarrelledand fellapart.Assoonasthishappened,GenghisreturnedtotheoffensiveandcrushedtheKerait.Theirleader,Togrul,fledtoNaimanterritory,wherehewasaccident- allykilledbyamanwhofailedtorecognizehim.PerhapsseeinginthisthehandofProvidence,theKeraitpeopleacceptedthefactofGenghisKhan'sleadershipandthereafterservedhimloyally.TheKhanhimselfwas notquitesoconfidentandhadtheKeraitclansdistributedamongtheMongoltribes,butatleasttherewasnomassacre.GenghisKhan'snextmovewastoattacktheNaiman,theonlypeoplenow inapositiontochallengehisdominationofMongolia.Thishedidbeforetheycouldactasafocusforthemanyscatteredremnantsof The'DemonwithaLamp'inthisUighurwall-paintingjromaBuddhistcavetemple atBezeklikismoreTurkishin style.SuchpaintingwouldhaveaninfluenceonIslamicMiddleEastern artfollowingtheTurkishandMongolcon-quests(WestBerlinState Museums). 19 peopleswhomtheMongolshadalreadydestroyed.ThedefeatoftheNaimanhadalltheelementsofaheroictragedy.Overwhelmedinafuriousbattle,themortallywoundedNaimanchieftainretreatedtoa hill,whereheaskedhiscompanionswhowerethefourwarriorswhonowpursuedhimlikewolves.Aone-timecomradeofGenghisKhanwhonowfoughtfortheNaimanrepliedthattheywerethefourhunting dogsofTemiichin:fedonhumanfleshandleashedwithironchains;theirskullsareofbrass,theirteethhewnfrom rock,theirtongueslikeswords.Askingtheidentityofthemanwhofollowedthem,theNaimanchiefwas told,'thatismyblood-brotherTemiichin,wearingacoatofiron'.AstheNaimanlaydying,thelastofhisfollowerschargeddownthehilluponthevictoriousMongols.Genghis,admiringtheircourageand loyalty,wantedtosparethem,buttheyspurnedhisofferandfoughttillallwereslain. UnificationofCentralAsiaWiththesubmissionoftheNaiman,GenghisKhanbecameeffective rulerofallMongolia.In1206hesummonedagreatquriltai,orassemblyoftheleadersofthepeople,nearthesourceoftheOnonriver.HerehewasproclaimedsupremeKhanof allTurkishandMongoltribes'wholivedinfelttents'ineasternAsia.AfamousshamannamedKokchiideclaredthatGenghiswasKhan'bythestrengthoftheEternalHeaven'.Thus fortifiedwithdivineapproval,thenewrulerselectedawisejudgetorewardthosewhohadremainedfaithfulandpunishthosewhohadbetrayedhim.Suchjudgementswerethennoteddownin'BlueBooks',which laterbecamethefoundationofGenghisKhan'slegalcode.Ithadbeenagreatachievement,butitalsoposedGenghisKhanwiththeproblemthatfaced allthosenomadleaderswhomanagedtounifythewarlikeandpredatorytribesofCentralAsia.Whatshouldhedonow?Readyathiscommandstoodamagnificentmilitarymachine,butone thatwouldquarrelandstartfallingapartifitwasnotsoonused.Theobviousanswerwastodirectthetribesmen'swarlikeenergiesoutwards.ThusGenghiswasset,almostinevitably,onacareerofconquest.Sothe onlyrealquestionwaswhomtoattackfirst.MeanwhiletheshamanKokchiicontinuedtoproclaimtheKhan'sDivineMissionbutalsostartedmeddlinginhisfamilyaffairs.At last,GenghisKhan,despitehisfearoftheshaman'smagicalpowers,heededthewarningsofhismotherandhiswifeBorte.Kokchiihadtoberemovedbut,perhapsthroughfearof theshaman'spowers,thiswasdonebybreakingthemagician'sbackandthussheddingnoblood.20 AtfirsttheconceptofDivineMissionreferredonlytotheunificationoftheMongols.OthernomadicpeoplesofcentralAsiaweresoondrawnintothegranddesign,butonlylaterdidaseeminglyendlesssuccession ofvictoriesleadtotheideaofaUniversalEmpire-tothetheory,infact,ofWorldConquest.MeanwhileGenghisKhanhadtomopuptheneighbouringTurkishtribes.Thishedidbetween1207and1209.The wildKirghizofthenorthsubmitted,asdidsomeofthecivilizedUigurstothesouth.WhileothercentralAsianleadersduckedandweaved,orresistedandweredestroyed,theUighurkingBarchuq,realizingthat thesewereepoch-makingchanges,sentafulsomemessagetoGenghisKhan: ItiswithgreatjoythatIlearnedofthegloryofmylordGenghisKhan.Thecloudshavemadewayforthesun,theriverisfreedfromice.GrantmeyourfavourandIwilldedicatemystrengthtoyou, Ishallbeasafifthsontoyou.BythismeanstheUighursnotonlysurvivedtheconquestbutflourishedandbecometheMongols'teachersingovernmentandthe arts.Theymayevenhavehadmuchadvicetoofferinthetechniquesofsiegewarfare,becausetheywerestudentsofChineseaswellasIslamic militaryscience.GenghisKhan'stroopsalsoraidedtherichbutpeacefulHsi-HsiakingdomofwesternChina,whichlayonthefarsideoftheGobidesert.Here theMongolarmieshadtheirfirstclashwithasettledagriculturalandurbanstate.TheylearnedmuchbytheexperienceandforcedtheHsi-HsiakingtorecognizetheoverlordshipofGenghisKhan.Amuch tougherpropositionwastheChinstateofnorthernChina,whichhaditscapitalatPeking.GenghisKhan'scareersometimesreadslikeacatalogueofunbroken victories,butthiswasnotreallythecase.HisfirstattacksontheChineseheartlandwerenotveryeffective.Thecountrysidewasraided,buttheMongolscouldnottakefortifiedtowns.Whentheywithdrew,theChinarmy returnedtorepairthedamage,resupplyitsgarrisonsandstrengthentheirfortifications.NorcouldtheMongoltacticofmass-acringordispersingadefeatedfoeworkamongtheteemingmillionsof China;thereweresimplytoomanypeopletokill!NorcouldthebulkoftheunwarlikeChinesepeasantrybeenlistedintheMongolarmy.MeanwhiletheChinthemselves,thoughnowasettledrulingdynasty, retainedthemartialvigouroftheirnomadancestorsandfoughthard,aidedbyChinesescienceandChinesemilitaryengineers.(Contrarytopopularopinion,though,recentarchaeologicalresearchhasshownthat theGreatWallofChina-atleastinitspresentform-didnotexistinGenghisKhan'sday.)Eventhemonth-longsackofPekingin1215,afternumerousattacks,didnotmarktheendofChinresistance.InfactMongol assaultsonnorthernChinacontinuedalmostunabateduntilGenghisKhan'sdeath.Onlyunderhissuccessorswastheinvasionbroughttoasuccessfulconclusion. AfewitemssuchasthisironbitwithsilverinlaydecorationshowthesplendourofaTurco- Mongolchieftain'smilitaryequipment.Itdatesfromtheijthor14thcenturyandcomes fromagraveontheupperreachesoftheYenesiriver(Re-gionalMuseum,inv.6074, Minusinsk,USSR). 21 Mongolvictoriesweremoredramatictothewest.TherealmoftheKaraKhitaifell,withhardlyastruggle,toGenghisKhan'sloyalgeneral,Jebe,in121 8.ThisalsobroughttheremainingUighurlandsunderGenghisKhan'scontrol.MeanwhileJebeshowedhimselftobeastates-man,oratleastpolitician,aswellasafinegeneral.Heendedthe persecutionofIslamthathadcharacterizedthelastindependentKaraKhitairulerandwasthuswelcomedasaliberatorbytheTurkishMuslimsofwhat isnowthewesternmostprovinceoftheChinesePeople'sRepublic.ThissuccessmeantthattheMongols'frontierhadreachedtheIslamicworld.OnthefarsideofthetoweringPamirmountains laytherichandpopulousMuslimprovinceofTransoxaniaandbeyondthatIran.Here,however,theMongolswouldnotbesowelcome. InvasionofIslamGenghisKhan'sunificationofMongoliaandeasternTurkestaninvolved considerablebloodshedbutrelativelylittlematerialdamage.HisraidsonChinahadcauseddestructionbutnothingoutoftheordinaryforanomadinvasionoftheCelestialEmpire.Buthismarchwest,acrossthePamirmountains intotheMuslimheartland,wastobesomethingquitedifferent.ItwasthesecampaignsthatgaveGenghisKhanhisunenviablereputationofbeingoneofthegreatestdestroyersof alltime.TheappallinghavocwroughtbyGenghisKhan'sarmiesacrossthispartoftheMiddleEastsometimesmakes itseemasiftheMongolleaderhadaparticularlyvindictiveattitudetowardsIslamiccivilization.YethiskindlytreatmentofMuslimsintheoldKaraKhitairealm,andthefa
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