ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠬᠤᠶᠢᠳᠦ ᠠᠽᠢᠶ᠎ᠠ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠲᠡᠦᠬᠡ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠤᠨ ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠭ 1590-2010 [ ᠨᠠᠷᠠᠩ᠊ ᠣᠠ᠋᠂ ᠺᠷᠢᠪᠪ ] （ᠠᠩᠭ᠍ᠯᠢ ᠬᠡᠯᠡ ᠪᠠᠷ）

1590 - 2010 1590 - 2010 1590 - 2010 1590 - 2010 1590 - 2010 1590 - 2010 HISTORICAL ATLAS OF NORTHEAST ASIA M O N G O L I A R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N P E O P L E ’ S R E P U B L I C O F C H I N A J A P A N I N D I A PA K I S TA N BURMA THAILAND PHILIPPINES TAIWAN (Republic of China) KAZAKHSTAN AFGHAN- ISTAN SRI LANKA M A L A Y S I A I N D O N E S I A LAOS CAM- BODIA VIET- NAM NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA P A C I F I C O C E A N SEA OF OKHOTSK SOUTH CHINA SEA BAY OF BENGAL YELLOW SEA L I M I T S O F B A S E M A P NEPAL BANGLA- DESH BHUTAN SINGAPORE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC TURKMEN- ISTAN TAJIKISTAN M O N G O L I A R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N P E O P L E ’ S R E P U B L I C O F C H I N A J A P A N I N D I A PA K I S TA N BURMA THAILAND PHILIPPINES TAIWAN (Republic of China) KAZAKHSTAN AFGHAN- ISTAN SRI LANKA M A L A Y S I A I N D O N E S I A LAOS CAM- BODIA VIET- NAM NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA P A C I F I C O C E A N I N D I A N O C E A N SEA OF OKHOTSK SOUTH CHINA SEA BAY OF BENGAL YELLOW SEA L I M I T S O F B A S E M A P NEPAL BANGLA- DESH BHUTAN SINGAPORE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC TURKMEN- ISTAN TAJIKISTAN 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 500 Kilometers 0 1000 1500 500 2000 metres 170°E 150°E 150°E 130°E 130°E 110°E 90°E 90°E 70°E 70°E 60°N 60°N 50°N 50°N 40°N 30°N 20°N 20°N 10°N 10°N Projection: MercatorHISTORICAL 1590 – 2010 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK LI NARANGOA ROBERT CRIBB OF A • T • L • A • S KOREA MANCHURIA MONGOLIA EASTERN SIBERIA + BYCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS Publishers Since 1893 New York Chichester, West Sussex cup.columbia.edu Copyright © 2014 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Narangoa, Li. Historical atlas of northeast Asia, 1590–2010 : Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia / Li Narangoa and Robert Cribb. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-231-16070-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-231-53716-2 (e-book) 1. East Asia—History—Maps. 2. East Asia—Historical geography—Maps. 3. East Asia—Maps. I. Cribb, Robert. II. Title. G.SN ' . —dc Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. This book is printed on paper with recycled content. Printed in the United States of America C 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FRONTISPIECE: Northeast Asia COVER IMAGE: John Tresscott, “Mappa gubernii Irkutensis, complectens provincias Irkutensem, Jakutensem, et Udinensem” (St. Petersburg, 1776). (Courtesy of Meeting of Frontiers, Library of Congress and Russian State Library) COVER DESIGN: Noah Arlow BOOK DESIGN: Vin Dang References to Web sites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the authors nor Columbia University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.Acknowledgments VII Methodology and Sources IX Terminology and Spelling XIII Abbreviations XV INTRODUCTION Northeast Asia 2 Contested Term, Contested Region 2 Geography 4 Climate and Human Ecology 8 Peoples and Languages 11 Politics 14 PART I 1590–1700 21 PART II 1700–1800 65 PART III 1800–1900 107 PART IV 1900–2010 151 Appendix A. Historical Maps 232 Appendix B. Gazeeer 272 Bibliography 303 Map Sources 317 Index 321 CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTS IN COMPLETING the Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, we have accumulated many academic debts. We have, first of all, benefited greatly from the scholarly environ- ment and material support provided by the Australian National University, and the project was made possible by a substantial Discovery Grant from the Austra- lian Research Council. e Cartography Section of the School of Culture, History and Language, College of Asia and the Pacific of the Australian National University provided the base map for the atlas, as well as the data for the elevation profiles, and was always on hand to provide technical advice. In gathering material for the atlas, we have drawn extensively on libraries and archives around the world. e library of the Australian National University and the National Library of Australia have been especially helpful, but we wish to thank also the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) in Col- lege Park, Maryland; the National Archives in Kew; the Nationaal Archief in e Hague; the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; the library of the University of Leiden; the Memorial Library, University of Wisconsin; the Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago; the Kroch Asia Library, Cornell University; the Bancro Library, University of California at Berkeley; the National Diet Library in Tokyo; the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts in St. Petersburg, Russia; the Na- tional Library of Russia in St. Petersburg; Det Kongelige Bibliotek in Copenhagen; the National Archive of Mongolia; the Library of Liaoning Province in Shenyang; the Inner Mongolia University Library; and the Inner Mongolia Library in Hohhot. As the atlas took shape, we sought advice from many colleagues, both on factual detail and on general strategies for the presentation of our material. We should especially like to thank Nakami Tatsuo, Enatsu Yoshiki, Kato Naoto, Nakashima Takeshi, omas Bartle, Mark Ellio, Chris Atwood, Lorea Kim, Ken Wells, Leonid Petrov, Sodbilig, Buyandelger, Bayildugchi, Zhou Taiping, Chimeddorji, O. Oyunjargal, Ookhnoi Batsaikhan, B. Natsagdorj, John Stephan, Remco Breuker, Erdenchuluu Kohchahar and the two anonymous reviewers for their very insight- ful and encouraging comments. We would like to thank our editor, Irene Pavi, for her competent and patient work on this complex and challenging project. Respon- sibility for the remaining shortcomings of the atlas remains, of course, with us.METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES THE HISTORICAL ATLAS OF NORTHEAST ASIA consists of fiy-six specially drawn maps covering the four centuries from 1590 to 2010. e design of the atlas—an introductory map, used as the frontispiece, showing the region’s loca- tion in Asia; four maps depicting the geography, climate and ecology, peoples, and late-sixteenth-century political landscape of Northeast Asia; forty-nine maps cov- ering the history of Northeast Asia over a span of ten (1590–1890 and 1960–2010) or five (1890–1960) years; and two concluding maps showing mineral resources and population densities—does not allow us to provide citations to sources with the specificity that is usual in a referenced text. It is important, therefore, to ex- plain briefly how the information on the maps was derived. All the maps are based on a standard, relief-shaded map of Northeast Asia— Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Eastern Siberia (including the Russian Far East)—that was kindly prepared for us by the Cartographic Section of the School of Culture, History and Language, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian Na- tional University. e technical data are PROJECTION Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area CENTRAL MERIDIAN 115° LATITUDE OF ORIGIN 45°N DATUM WGS 1984 To this base map, which reflects the geographical configuration of Northeast Asia in the late twentieth century, we added geographical and historical details using the graphics program Adobe Illustrator. We made no aempt to show sys- tematically events that occurred in other regions that appear on the maps, such as northern China and western Japan, except as far as they are directly relevant to developments in Northeast Asia. Nor did we depict changes in coastlines or in the course of rivers, except for the changes in the channel of the Yellow River (Huang He) north of Ordos in the nineteenth century, the massive change in the lower course of the Yellow River in 1855, * and the building of major dams in the twen- tieth century. In particular, we were not able to take into account the complex process of desertification that has occurred during the past two centuries. It has *On the historical geography of the Yellow River, see Xu Jiongxin “Growth of the Yellow River Delta over the Past 800 Years, as Influenced by Human Activities,” Geografiska An- naler, ser. A, Physical Geography 85, no. 1 (2003), 21–30; and Zhao-Yin Wang and Zhi-Yong Liang, “Dynamic Characteristics of the Yellow River Mouth,” Earth Surface Processes and Land- forms 25, no. 7 (2000): 765–782.X METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES In the premodern period, the demarcation lines between juris- dictions were oen fluid and imprecise. We faced a similar chal- lenge in regard to rebellions and insurgencies, including those of the twentieth century. Many of these movements held sway over regions that fluctuated dramatically in extent over a rela- tively short period of time, and they oen arose from ambitions that extended far beyond the movements’ effective influence. In both cases, we rendered this fluidity by means of blurred lines and blurred edges whose location, although based on a careful reading of sources, is necessarily approximate. e same applies to the arrows that depict the movement of peoples and armies: the start and end points of journeys are oen known, but the route followed must be surmised. We used smooth lines and ar- rows to signify this uncertainty. e growing proliferation and precision of borders in North- east Asia during the centuries covered by this atlas presented us with still other challenges. Until the advent of modern sur- vey mapping, which did not reach Northeast Asia until the late nineteenth century, mapmakers typically redrew older maps, making corrections and adding or removing details according to more recent (but not necessarily more reliable) information. Most maps are thus an amalgam of information of differing provenance, differing age, and differing reliability. Individual cartographers, moreover, drew on separate sources in mak- ing their updates. Different map projections give the impres- sion of different spatial relationships between different points on the landscape. e copying of information from older maps means that the appearance of the same information on a vari- ety of maps cannot be taken as reliable corroboration. Mapmak- ers everywhere, moreover, use the depiction of complexity as a token of accuracy; inevitably, some detail is simply surmised. brought dramatic changes, including the desiccation of rivers and lakes and the disappearance of forests and grasslands, but data on this major ecological development is too meager to allow for reliable mapping. e location of places (cities, rivers, lakes, mountains, and other landforms) was obtained for the most part from standard atlases, of which the most important for our purposes were Times Atlas of the World, Times Atlas of China, the Russian Atlas Rossii, and the Mongolian Undesnii Atlas. We also made use of Google Maps and other online contemporary map and sat- ellite-photograph Web sites. To locate places and geographical features not shown in these sources, we examined a very wide variety of published and manuscript maps, many of them of specific parts of Northeast Asia. In some cases, we consulted dozens of maps to satisfy ourselves of the location of a toponym. In a few cases, place-names eluded us altogether; in a few more cases, we were unable to determine which of two or more fea- tures with the same name were being referred to (many lakes in the Mongol lands, for instance, are locally known as Chagan Nuur, which means “white lake”). To locate lesser known places on our maps, we were forced to be brave and approximate: early maps do not employ standard, or even known, projections, and it is not uncommon for the same place to appear twice on the same map in different locations. In such cases, we preferred to choose an approximate location, rather than none at all, but we avoided being arbitrary; no location appears on a map without underlying evidence. In the mapping of early borders and the movement of peoples and armies, we generally were not able to draw on maps at all, but aimed to translate information from primary and secondary sources—oen vague and incomplete—into lines on the map. XI METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES sion within sovereign states—corresponding to province and county—but we ask the reader to bear in mind that this classi- fications is a crude one, intended only to give a general sense of governmental hierarchy. e Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia is based on extensive re- search in archives, map collections, and secondary literature. e most important map collections that we used are • The map collections of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. • The War Department Map Collection (RG 77), National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland • The Foreign Oce map collection (FO 925), National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom • The map collection of the National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg • The online Ryhiner Map Collection of early maps, hosted by the University of Bern • The online David Rumsey Map Collection In addition, we drew on both maps and archival material in other sections of the National Archives and Records Adminis- tration and of the National Archives, as well as material in the Nationaal Archief in e Hague and the Politisches Archiv des Auswärtiges Amt (Diplomatic Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Berlin. Each of the maps in the atlas contains informa- tion from a wide variety of sources. If one or more sources is especially important for information that is prominent in a spe- cific map, the information appears in ”Map Sources,” following the bibliography. Furthermore, whereas the convention of identifying the author, publisher, and date of publication of a book was well established by the seventeenth century, the same is not true of maps, many of which were published without direct indication of prove- nance or date. e consequence is that for the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries—and, indeed, well into the twentieth cen- tury—apparently authoritative map sources oen offer contra- dictory evidence on the precise course of borders and lines of communication. We aempted to resolve these discrepancies by reference to non-map documentary sources, but those materials also present problems of reliability. Accordingly, in the atlas we offer our best judgment of the location of borders and lines of communication without being able to vouch unequivocally for the reliability of every line on the maps. Specific borders are marked in red the first time they appear on a map; thereaer, they are in black. A further challenge we faced in preparing the atlas was to cope with the complexity of levels of government. Modern states are normally neatly arranged into a hierarchy of admin- istrative categories, with states or provinces below the national level and counties, prefectures, or equivalent jurisdictions below them. One does not have to go far back into the North- east Asian past, however, to find a bewildering complexity of relationships among political units. Episodes of state collapse and retreat oen made it difficult for us to determine where sovereignty may have resided. It was also hard to determine