ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠤ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠦᠮᠦᠰ ᠤᠨ ᠠᠮᠢᠳᠤᠷᠠᠯ .pdf

X Epigraph therefore rather kill him, that perhaps God may deliver us.' But I swear by God that not one of them dared to do this, so I took a knife and slew him, and we fled and escaped.“ And such occurrences were many. NOTE 1. From Edward G. Browne, A Eiterary History of Persia, vol. 2 (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1915), 427-31. Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, California State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Professor Arkenberg. This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book, “Internet History Sourcebooks Project,“ ed. Paul Halsall, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1220al-Athir-mongols.html. The sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts related to medieval and Byzantine history. PREFACE Because no standardized system of transliteration exists to render foreign scripts into English text, Arabic, Persian, and especially Chinese names, titles, and expressions can appear in a bewildering array of forms, fash ions and spellings. Often these renderings are decorated with a profusion of confusing and varied diacritical marks. For example, the Persian Sufi poet of the thirteenth century, Mawlana Jalaladdin Rumi, is referred to in scholarly works as Rumi, Jalal al-Din Rumi, Jalalu'ddin Rumi, or even JalaluT-Din Rumi. In Turkey he is known as Mavlana, in popular works he is known simply as Rumi or Jalaluddin Rumi, and in Iran as Maulana. The Persian historian cAta Malik cAla al-Dm Juwayni appears often as Juvaini, or Juvaini, or Ata-Malik Juvaini, or combinations of these. Chinese names are even more varied and confusing, and when consulting other books and maps these variations should be borne in mind. Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan, Chingiz Khan) attacked the Xi-Xia early in his career. These early targets are also called the Xixia, the Hsi-hsia, or the Hsi-Hsia. Before it became the Mongol capital, Da-du, or Ta-tu, was referred to as Zhong-du, Chung-du, Chang-tu, or Chong-du. Until an internationally accepted sys tem of transliteration is established this confusion will continue. However, an awareness of the problem and a flexible attitude to spelling and trans literation will greatly alleviate the difficulties in the meantime. I would like to express my gratitude for the generosity of the Committee for Central and Inner Asia (CCIA), Faculty of Oriental Studies, Cambridge University whose funding contributed towards the costs of travel incurred Xll Preface during the research for this book. My thanks also to Florence Hodous for her time and hard work in the final stages of getting the book into print. And a final word of thanks in recognition of the patience and endurance shown by Assumpta, Oscar and Ella over the long months that I have been engrossed by this project. CHRONOLOGY 1125 Liao dynasty (Khitans) driven out of north China by Jurchens, who become the Chin dynasty. The seminomadic Khitans flee westward and eventually found the Qara Khitai empire in Central Asia. 1141 The Saljuq sultan Sanjar defeated by Qara Khitai at Qatwan steppe near Samarqand. It is the advance of the Qara Khitai (Black Cathays) that gives rise to the legend of Prester John. 1167 Temlijin (Chinggis Khan) is born. The years between 1155 and 1167 are also claimed as his date of birth. 1174 Temujin engaged to Borte, daughter of Dei-sechen of the Onggirat. Yesiigei (father) poisoned by Tatars. 1180 Temujin murders half-brother Bekhter. Later held in Tayichi'ut captivity. 1183-84 Borte abducted by Merkits. Toghril and Jamuka assist in rescue. First-born child, Jochi, is born shortly after Borte's release. 1187 Temujin is defeated at the battle of Dalan Balzhut. Gap in Temujin's life history; possibly in exile in China. 1200 Ala' al-Dm Mohammed II, Khwarazmshah, accedes. 1206 Chinggis Khan proclaimed supreme ruler of the tribes, at a quriltai in Mongolia. Reign of the Delhi sultans in northern India/Pakistan until 1555. XIV 1209 1211 1215 1218 1219 1221-23 1223 1227 1229 1234 1235 1237-42 1241 1245-47 1246 1248 1250 1251 1252-79 1253-55 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 Chronology Mongols invade Hsi-Hsia (Xixia, Xi-Xia). Mongols invade Chin (Jurchen) empire of north China. Chin capital, Chong-du (Zhongdu, Chung-tu), falls to Mongols. Zhongdu later rebuilt and renamed Da-du, Ta-tu, Khan Baliq. Mongol troops under Jebe occupy Qara Khitai empire. Chinggis Khan invades empire of the Khwarazmshah. Ch'ang Ch'un journeys from China to Hindu Kush. Chinggis Khan returns to Mongolia. Chinggis Khan dies. Final conquest of Hsi-Hsia. Ogodei elected as Great Khan. Chin resistance to Mongols ends. Ogodei builds walls of Qaraqorum, Mongol imperial capital. Mongol campaigns, conducted under Batu in Russia and Eastern Europe. Ogodei dies; battles of Liegnitz and River Sajo. Regency of Toregene until 1246. John of Piano Carpini (Giovanni Diplano Carpini) journeys to Mongolia. Guyiik elected as Great Khan. Giiyuk dies. Regency of Oghul Ghaymish lasts until 1251. Mamluks seize effective power in Egypt, Tzz al-Dm Aybak Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf al-Musa nominally on throne. Mongke elected as Great Khan. Mongols conquer Sung empire of south China. William of Rubruck journeys to Mongolia. Hiilegu's forces set off for Persia. Tzz al-DIn Aybak assumes full powers in Egypt. The Bahri line of Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, 1250-1390 (Ethnic Qipchaq Turks originating from Russian steppes). Batu, first khan of Golden Horde dies. Sartak briefly khan of Golden Horde, succeeded by his brother, Ulaghchi. Hulegu takes Assassin castles in north Persia. Berke accedes as khan of Golden Horde. His accession fol lows mysterious death of both Sartak and Ulaghchi. Chronology xv 1258 Baghdad falls to Hulegu. Last 'Abbasid caliph dies. 1259 Mongke dies. Hulegu travels east. 1259 The Mamluk Qutuz assumes power in Egypt. 1260 Ket-Buqa invades Syria with a small force, then withdraws. Battle of Ain Jalut takes place. Rival quriltais elect Qubilai and Ariq-Buqa as Great Khan; civil war ensues. Ket-Buqa, a Christian Mongol, is captured and killed. 1260 al-Malik al-Zahir Baybars I al-Bunduqdari assumes Mamluk throne (Baybars 1260-77). 1261-62 Warfare breaks out between Hulegu and Berke. 1264 Qubilai is victorious over Ariq Buqa. 1265 Hulegu, first Il-Khan, dies. Abaqa succeeds. 1266 Building begins at new Mongol capital of China, Ta-tu (Da-du, Beijing). 1267 Berke, khan of Golden Horde, dies. 1271 Marco Polo, with his father and uncle, sets off for China (arrives 1275). 1272 Qubilai adopts Chinese dynastic title, Yuan. 1273 Jalal al-DIn Rumi dies. 1274 First Mongol expedition against Japan takes place. 1276 Hangzhou, capital of Sung empire, falls to Mongols. 1279 Sung resistance to Mongols ends. 1281 Second Mongol expedition launched against Japan. 1282 Abaqa Khan dies through alcohol abuse and succeeded by Ahmad Tegudar. Ottomans begin to form a statelet and reign until 1924. 1284 Ahmad Tegudar dies and Arghun succeeds. 1287 Rabban Sauma sent to Europe by Il-Khan Arghun. 1292 Persian poet from Shiraz, Sa'di, dies. 1294 Qubilai dies. John of Monte Corvino arrives in China. Ch'ao is introduced disastrously into Iran. 1295 Ghazan accedes as Il-Khan. Mongols in Persia become Muslim. 1299-1300 Major Mongol invasion of Syria takes place. Syria is briefly occupied by Il-Khanid forces. 1304 Il-Khan Ghazan dies. Oljeitii succeeds. XVI Chronology 1313 Ozbek, under whose rule the Golden Horde becomes Muslim, accedes. Oljeitu Khan builds his capital, Sultaniya. 1316 Oljeitu dies. 1318 Rashid al-DIn, a vizier of tremendous talents, is executed, and his son remains in power. 1335 Abu Sa'id, last Il-Khan of line of Hulegu, dies. Jalayrids (Baghdad), Karts (Herat), Sarbadars (Sabzevar), and Muzaffarids (Shiraz) form successor states. 1346 Black Death breaks out among Mongol force besieging Kaffa in the Crimea and from there spreads to Europe. 1353-54 Major outbreak of disease takes place in China. The Moroccan traveler-writer Ibn Battuta dictates his journals. 1368 Mongols driven from China by Ming forces. 1370 Toghon Temur, last Yuan emperor, dies in Qaraqorum. The renowned North African historian Ibn Khaldun writes Muqa- ddima in 1375. 1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW: GENGHIS KHAN AND MONGOL RULE The present century and much of the last century are commonly viewed as a time of unprecedented change and of events with global rather than local ramifications. It is widely believed that the world had never under gone such a shared traumatic transformation on such a scale anytime before. The sweeping changes that overtook much of Asia and Eastern Europe in the thirteenth century had as profound an effect on that cen tury's political, cultural, economic, mercantile, and spiritual environment as the forces of globalization are having on the world today. Whereas the causes and reasons for the pervasiveness of globalization today are com plex, the spread of the globalization that swept the medieval world can be traced to one man. That man was Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan),1 born Temujin, son of Yisugei, and it was he who united the Turco-Mongol tribes of Eurasia behind him and swept out of the steppe with devastating and radical effect. Initially Chinggis Khan had sought wealth through plun der in order for him to consolidate his power base and keep the tribes happy. Eventually, this zeal for booty transformed into a taste for power and grew into a conviction of spiritual righteousness, and suddenly the Mongol armies were carrying with them the banner of Tengri, the god of the sky, and their continued success was proof of their god's omnipotence and support. Temujin's harsh rise to power was the catalyst that resulted in the forma tion of the largest contiguous land empire. He emerged first as the young son who desperately fought for his fatherless family, then as tribal leader surrounded by a core of staunchly loyal supporters, and thereafter as 2 Daily Eife in the Mongol Empire supratribal leader unifying the peoples of the Asian steppes with promises of untold wealth and prestige, and finally as Chinggis Khan, world con queror whose issue initiated actions, concluded agreements, and accom plished feats the impact of which resounds to this day. The treaty between Tibet and China was first drafted by a Mongol ruler and remains the basis for their union today; the Sufi songs of Rumi that resound around the world from California to Tokyo were nurtured and first heard under Mongol rule; Beijing was built by the Mongols as their capital of a united China, a status it enjoys to this day; the cultural and spiritual links between western Asia and the East were cemented under Mongol auspices. From Temujin, whose name once evoked derision, to Genghis Khan, who cowed and roused the princes of Russia and Eastern Europe and who would awe emissaries from a fearful outside world, this Mongol emperor is more deserving of fame than of infamy. He was not only a world conqueror but also a world unifier. • Chinggis Khan, Hohhut Museum. Courtesy of Xinjiang Qinshan Culture Publishing Historical Overview: Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule 3 THE LEGACY The legacy of Genghis Khan and the Mongol hordes has been shrouded and obscured by the myth makers of history and indeed by the propaganda of the Mongols themselves. Those who suffered humiliation and defeat needed to justify and explain their shame through hyperbole, whereas the Mongols, eager to deter any who would challenge their rise, were con tent that the terror inspired by these tales provoked inaction rather than reaction. The result is that today for many the name of Genghis Khan is synonymous with evil and the Mongols with barbarian rule and destruc tion. Their defenders are few and, until recently, their apologists rare. In Europe the echo of their horses' hooves resonated with dread on the pages of the chronicles of Matthew Paris, whereas in Japan it was believed that only the divine intervention of the kamikaze winds prevented the collapse of that island empire into a sea of barbarism. In Russia the Chronicle of Novgorod still inspires horror at the memory of the events of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and the Islamic world continues to quote less than objective sources such as the doom-laden words of Ibn al-Athir rather than those historians who wrote from firsthand knowledge. Such sentiments are not universal, however, and among not only Mongolian people but also among the Turkish people both in Turkey and Early copy of the Secret History in Hohhut Museum. Courtesy of Xinjiang Qinshan Culture Publishing 4 Daily Eife in the Mongol Empire Turkish Central Asia, the appellations Genghis, Hulegu, Mongke, Arghun, and other such names from the Mongol golden age can still be found and are worn with honor. In the Turkish-speaking world and within the coun tries straddling the Eurasian steppes, Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes are becoming a source of pride, and the tales told of his deeds and progeny are a source of inspiration. Recent academic thinking has also begun to look again at the legacy of the Mongols and at the period of Mongol rule itself. Beneath the rhetoric and propaganda, behind the battles and massacres, hidden by the often self- generated myths and legends, the reality of the two centuries of Mongol ascendancy was often one of regeneration, creativity, and growth. Two recent exhibitions, one in the United States and the other in London have celebrated the glorious legacy of the peoples from the Eurasian steppe. In New York and Los Angeles in 2002 an exhibition entitled The Eegacy of Genghis Khan paid tribute to the cultural achievements of the Mongols who ruled in Iran and quieted the myth that the period of Il-Khanid rule in Iran (1256-1335) was barbaric. Likewise in London in 2005, a major exhibition celebrated the Turks' more than 1,000 years of glorious history, covering their rule and influence in a swath of countries from China to Europe. The aim of this book is to explore this more objective portrait of Genghis Khan and the period of Mongol rule following his death in 1227 C.E. and seek a more dispassionate view of life under Mongol rule. CHINGGIS KHAN AND MONGOL RULE The next chapter will examine the lands into which Temujin was born. It will give an overview of the Eurasian steppes and the society that thrived there in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Genghis Khan, or Chinggis Khan as his name is more correctly written, drastically reshaped the rela tionship between the pastoral, nomadic societies of the northern Eurasian steppes and their southern urban, agriculturist, and sedentary neighbors. This first chapter will consider why this occurred and the political and social pressures that built up to cause this major upheaval. The Mongol Empire comprising the Eurasian steppes officially came into being in spring 1206, the year of the Tiger, with the symbolic rising of the white standard of the protective spirit of the nation and the enthrone ment of Temujin as emperor of the nation of archers, supreme leader of the