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GR E AT E M PI R E S OF T H E PA ST EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS Revised Edition GEP-Mongols 5.indd 1 7/31/09 9:57:07 AM Empire of Alexander the Great Empire of Ancient Egypt Empire of Ancient Greece Empire of Ancient Rome Empire of the Aztecs Empire of the Incas Empire of the Islamic World Empire of the Mongols Empires of Ancient Mesopotamia Empires of Ancient Persia Empires of Medieval West Africa Empires of the Maya GR E AT E M PI R E S OF T H E PA ST GEP-Mongols 5.indd 2 7/31/09 9:57:12 AM GR E AT E M PI R E S OF T H E PA ST EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS MICHAEL BURGAN CHRISTOPHER P. ATWOOD, HISTORICAL CONSULTANT Revised Edition GEP-Mongols 5.indd 3 7/31/09 9:57:19 AM Great Empires of the Past: Empire of the Mongols Copyright © 2009, 2004 Michael Burgan All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burgan, Michael. Empire of the Mongols / Michael Burgan. — Rev. ed. p. cm. — (Great empires of the past) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60413-163-5 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4381-2573-2 (e-book) 1. Mongols—History—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series. DS19.B87 2008 950’.02—dc22 2008050884 Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. 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GEP-Mongols FNL.indd 4 9/23/09 12:41:44 PM 5 CONTENTS Introduction 7 PART I HISTORY CH A P T ER 1 The Rise of the Mongol Empire 19 CH A P T ER 2 Completing the Mongol Empire 39 CH A P T ER 3 Final Years of the Khanates 57 PART II SOCIETY AND CULTURE CH A P T ER 4 Mongol Government and Society 77 CH A P T ER 5 Daily Life in the Mongol Empire 97 CH A P T ER 6 Art, Science, and Culture in Mongol Lands 115 Epilogue 135 Time Line 145 Glossary 147 Bibliography 149 Further Resources 151 Picture Credits 153 Index 154 About the Author 160 GEP-Mongols 5.indd 5 7/31/09 9:57:33 AM GEP-Mongols 5.indd 6 7/31/09 9:57:56 AM 7 FOR SEVERAL THOUSAND YEARS, WARRIORS ON HORSEBACK rode across central Asia, conquering nearby towns and cities. These horsemen lived on the steppes, which is a flat, grassy region that extends from Asia into central Europe. The riders were nomads—people with no permanent home. They moved from one grazing spot to another with their herds of horses, sheep, camels, goats, and cattle. Over the centuries, these nomads battled such people as the ancient Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, the Chinese, and the Arabs. Of all the nomadic warriors of central Asia, the fiercest were the Mongols. In the 13th century, starting in their homeland of Mongolia, just north of China, the Mongols spread out to the south and west. Under the leadership of Chinggis Khan (ca. 1162–1227) and his descen- dants, the Mongols quickly built an empire that stretched from Korea to eastern Europe—the largest continuous area of land ever controlled by one ruling family. This empire soon split into four mini-empires. The last major rul- ers who had ties to the old Mongol empire were the Mughals of north- ern India. They first governed in the 16th century. They traced family ties to Chinggis Khan and the later Turkic-Mongol ruler Timur (1336– 1405), who was more commonly known in English as Tamerlane. By the time of the Mughals, the old Mongol culture had just about disappeared in most of the lands that once formed their empire. The Mongols had adopted the ways of the people they conquered and blended into their societies. Only in their homeland of Mongolia and a few other pockets of the eastern steppes did the traditional ways endure. INTRODUCTION O P P O S I T E Chinggis Khan was the first great leader of the Mongols. Under him and his descendants, the Mongols created the largest empire ever controlled by one family. This 16th-century Persian miniature, painted 300 years after his death, shows his lasting influence. GEP-Mongols 5.indd 7 7/31/09 9:58:15 AM E M p i R E o f T h E M o n g o l s 8 This willingness to learn from conquered people and take on their culture was one of the Mongols’ great- est strengths. They borrowed the best of what their former enemies had to offer in poli- tics, art, and social structure. The Mongols’ other major strength was their military might. They had great skills on horseback and showed tremendous discipline on the battlefield. As they conquered each land, they recruited new soldiers, then moved their ever-increas- ing army to new territories. The World of The 12Th CenTury For several centuries before the rise of Chinggis Khan, the Mon- gols were just one of many nomadic tribes that lived on the Central Asian steppes. Different Turkic peoples ruled the steppes for a time, and the Chinese also influenced the region. The tribes of Mongolia blended with the Turks, creating what is sometimes called a Turko- Mongol culture. By the 12th century, the tribes of Mongolia included the Tatars, the Mongols, the Kereyids, the Naimans, and the Merkits. These Mongolian tribal peoples lived on the land mass called Eur- asia. This continuous stretch of land includes most of Europe and Asia. At its height in the second century, the Roman Empire dominated the western half of Eurasia. At about the same time, the Han dynasty of China was the major power in the east. By the 12th century, both these empires were long gone, and a number of smaller empires and king- doms competed for influence in the region. The Roman Empire had split in two even before its fall in the fifth century. Western Europe then broke into many different kingdoms and principalities (small states ruled by princes). The Byzantine Empire, which traced its political roots to the Romans, ruled parts of Eastern Europe. What Are Connections? Throughout this book, and all the books in the great Empires of the past series, there are Connections boxes. They point out ideas, inventions, art, food, customs, and more from this empire that are still part of the world today. nations and cultures in remote history can seem far away from the present day, but these connections demonstrate how our everyday lives have been shaped by the peoples of the past. CONNECTIONS GEP-Mongols FNL.indd 8 8/4/09 2:22:11 PM I n t r o d u c t i o n  In the Middle East, a single great Islamic Empire had arisen in the seventh century. It then broke up into smaller empires. In South Asia, India had developed a great culture that was more than 3,000 years old. But by the 12th century, native Indian rulers were losing power to outsiders. The northern part of the country eventually came under the control of Turks, who had become Muslims. Farther east in Eurasia, the powerful Han dynasty ruled China. When it fell, the Song and Jin dynasties competed for power. (A dynasty is a family that keeps control of a government over many generations, with rule often passed from a parent to a child.) A number of smaller empires, some Turkic, also competed for influence on the edges of China. Throughout the world at this time, religion played a greater role in politics and daily life than it usually does today. Religion inspired great art. It could also be the cause of bloody wars. Eastern and Western Europe were divided by their religion, as each claimed that its type of Christianity was the true faith. Islam was dominant in the Arab world and in Persia. The Islamic influence spread into Central Asia, where Turkic tribes lived. In India, Hinduism and Buddhism (both native to India) were the main religions until the Muslim conquests began. In China, Buddhism competed with Daoism (a native Chinese religion) as the main faith. The Mongols had their own religion, but they often accepted the beliefs of the people they conquered. The empires that dominated Eurasia in the 12th century were mostly sedentary—they were built around permanent towns and cities that focused on farming and trade. They had great wealth compared to the Mongols. But in most cases they could not match the military skill of the nomadic warriors. They also had political and religious differences that kept them from working together to fight the Mon- gols. Those differences made it easier for the Mongols to expand their empire. The ConquesTs Begin The first Mongol khan (supreme ruler) emerged toward the end of the 11th century. A little later, the Mongols battled the Tatars. The Mongol chieftain Yesugei (d. ca. 1175), a relative of the first khan, killed a Tatar leader named Temüjin (d. ca. 1167). Yesugei then named his newborn son after the fallen Tatar, which was a common practice of the day. Turks and Mongols Throughout this book, Mongol is used to describe the people of Mongolia during the time of the Mongol Empire. Mongolian, when it is used, refers to the mod- ern-day people of Mon- golia. In a similar way, Turkic or Turk or Turko refers to past peoples, not the current inhabit- ants of modern Turkey. GEP-Mongols 5.indd 9 7/31/09 9:58:23 AM E M p i R E o f T h E M o n g o l s 10 Temüjin became one of the greatest generals and leaders the world has ever known— Chinggis Khan. As nomads, the Mon- gols and their neighbors often raided sedentary communi- ties. The tribes of Mongolia also raided one another. An individual warrior in one tribe often used his family connec- tions and a strong personality to convince other warriors to join his raiding party. Temüjin followed this path to power, and his growing army fought and defeated larger tribes. By 1206, Temüjin had united almost all the Turko- Mongol tribes of Mongolia, and he received the title of Chinggis Khan. There is some debate about what this title really means. Some scholars say it means “hard or tough ruler,” others believe it means “oceanic (universal) ruler,” and there are even more theories. In English, Chinggis Khan, and each of the rulers who came after him at the head of the Mongol Empire, was sometimes called the Great Khan. The Mongols under Chinggis had one of the most powerful armies in central Asia. As the “universal” ruler, he brought the rest of the tribes under his control. Then he began to look beyond Mongolia’s borders. This time, however, the plan was not just to raid the sedentary civiliza- tions that surrounded them. Chinggis wanted to conquer and dominate all the nations around him. Almost constant attacks prevented other nations from gaining enough strength to threaten the Mongols. These wars also brought great riches to Chinggis and his family. afTer Chinggis In 1223 Chinggis returned to Mongolia, and he died there in 1227. As Chinggis wanted, control of the empire passed to Ögedei (1186–1241), The historians of the Mongols’ day wrote in a variety of languages, including persian, Chinese, Arabic, and Turkic. Modern European historians using these Asian sources translate some of the Mongol names in different ways. Chinggis Khan, for example, also appears as Jingiz, Chin- giz, Cinggis, and genghis. his grandson Khubilai Khan (1215–1294) also turns up as Kubilai, Qubilai, and Kubla, and Khan is sometimes written Qa’an or Qan. The same problem emerges with geographic names. The Mongol capital of Karakorum, for example, is also spelled Qaraqorum. sometimes, it can make for confusing history. Names of a Conqueror GEP-Mongols FNL.indd 10 8/4/09 2:22:14 PM I n t r o d u c t i o n 11 his third son. By Mongol tradition, Chinggis’s empire was divided among his four sons, though the other brothers recognized Ögedei as the Great Khan of the empire. Ögedei set up his capital at Karakorum, north of today’s Arvayheer in Mongolia, and focused his military attention on the Jin in northern China. The ultimate Mongol victory in 1234 meant that half of East Asia’s greatest civilization was under the control of these nomads. A few years later, Korea and Tibet were added to the Mongol Empire. Ögedei also launched the first Mongol attacks on the territory controlled by the Song dynasty in southern China. Ögedei also turned his sights to the west. His generals conquered what is today Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia, then forced the rulers in what is today Turkey and Iraq to pay tribute (riches paid to a foreign ruler to prevent an invasion or show obedience to them). Eventually, Mongol forces took control of the western steppes that stretched beyond Russia’s Volga River into Hungary. The Mongols were prepared to stay in Hungary and make it a base for further expan- sion into Europe. But the death of Ögedei late in 1241 changed their plans. Just as suddenly as the Mongols had swept into Europe, they left, although a large force remained in Russia. The Russians later called the Mongols’ mini-empire the Golden Horde. The rise of KhuBilai Khan After Ögedei’s death, three of Chinggis’s grandsons ruled, one after the other, as the Great Khan. The second of these rulers, Möngke (d. 1259), strengthened Mongol rule in southwest Asia, in what is now Iran and Iraq. Möngke also prepared for a major war with the Song in China, and he sent his brother Khubilai (ca. 1215–1294) to fight in lands bordering Song dynasty territory. An Enduring Title the turkic title khan (or variations of the word) means “prince” or “king.” It was used throughout Central Asia for centuries. It is commonly used today in English when talk- ing about the great mongol rulers Chinggis and Khubilai. But one modern ruler also uses the name. the Aga Khan (b. 1936) is the religious leader of the shia Imami Ismaili branch of Islam. the current Aga Khan is the 49th leader with that title. A charitable organization called the Aga Khan Development network operates in many countries with large Islamic populations, and pakistan is the home of Aga Khan University. Khan has also become a common sur- name in pakistan and India. CONNECTIONS GEP-Mongols 5.indd 11 7/31/09 9:58:32 AM E M p i R E o f T h E M o n g o l s 12 After Möngke died in 1259, Khubilai was chosen the next Great Khan. While Möngke and Khubilai focused their attention on China, their relatives fought in western Asia. Möngke’s brother Hül- egü (c