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MONGOLS, HUNS AND VIKINGS ~.::.:x!J:.~iI'- MONGOLS, HUNS AND VII(INGS NOMADS AT WAR Hugh Kennedy General Editor: John Keegan CAss.w. For Alice, with love Cassell Mongol tactics and training; The organization of the Mongol armies; The attack on China 1211 and the fall of the Chin; The fall of the Khwarazm Shah; Mongol siege weapons and tactics; The reputation of the Mongols 109 5 THE MONGOLS IN EUROPE The homeland of the Huns; The Huns and their horse ; Hunnic weapons; Hunnic siege techniques; The coming of Attila; Attila and the Roman Empire; The battle of the Catalaunian Plains 451; Attila's invasion of Italy 452; The death of Attila and the break-up of his empire 2 3 2 THE ARABS Arab tribes and society; Arab weapons and armour; Muhammad and the coming of Islam; Arab unification and expansion; The battle of Yarmuk 636; Arab tactics; Arab siege warfare 57 6 The campaigns against the Russian principalities; The fall of Kiev; The battle of Mohi 1241; Hiilegii's campaign against the Assassins; Hiilegii's campaign against the Caliph of Baghdad; The battle of 'Ayn Jalut 1260 1 41 THE VIKINGS Viking ships; Viking weapons; Viking raids on France and in the Mediterranean; The Viking invasions of Britain 865-1066 1 73 POSTSCRIPT 3 THE ARRIVAL OF THE TURKS The origins of the Turks; The slave-soldiers in the Muslim world; The battle of Dandanqan and the foundation of Turkish power; The battle of Manzikert 93 The end of nomad dominance BIOGRAPHIES FURTHER READING INDEX PICTURE CREDITS 2°7 21 4 218 220 224 KEY TO MAPS Symbols on map X battle ~castle or fortified town Name style ~~~T~~:TEIndependent state Thrace province SARMATIANS major tribal group Geographical symbols _ urban area road river seasonal river canal border Military movements attack y retreat or conjectural movement MAP LIST I. EMPIRE OF THE HUNS c. 451 4 2 -3 2. ARABIA BEFORE THE MUSLIM CONQUESTS 63 3· MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN THE FERTILE CRESCENT 73 4· THE BATTLE OF YARMUK 636 78-9 5· MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN NORTH AFRICA AND EUROPE 634 TO 73 2 84-5 6. MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN IRAN AND THE EAST 86-7 7· THE BATTLE OF MANZIKERT, AUGUST 1071 104-5 8. THE MONGOLS BEFORE GENGHIS KHAN 112 9· MONGOL CAMPAIGNS 1206-60 128-9 10. THE MONGOL CAMPAIGNS IN RUSSIA 1223-40 145 II. MONGOL CAMPAIGNS IN EUROPE 1240-45 153 12. THE BATTLE OF MOHI 1241 154-5 13· VALLEYS OF THE ASSASSINS 16 5 14· ASSASSIN CASTLE OF ALAMUT 166 15· MONGOL CAMPAIGNS IN ASIA C. 1300 170-71 16. HOMELAND OF THE VIKINGS 175 17· VIKING ROUTES TO NORTH AMERICA C. 1000 176-7 18. VIKINGS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 844, 859- 62 AND 912- 13 192-3 19· VIKING RAIDS ON BRITAIN 789-860 195- 20. DANISH GREAT ARMY 865-79 19 6 21. VIKING CAMPAIGNS 878-900 197 395-6 MONGOLS, HUNS AND VIKINGS CHRONOLOGY The Huns c. 370 Huns begin to move west from Central Asian steppes. 376 Goths defeat East Roman army at battle of .Adrianople. 395 Death of Theodosius the Great and the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. Arcadius (395--402) is Eastern Emperor and Honorius (395--423) Western Emperor. Winter: Danube freezes and Huns enter 451 452 453 454 454-5 Attila decides to invade Western Roman Empire. 20 June: Huns defeated by Aetius and his allies at battle of Catalaunian Plains (Chalons-sur-Marne). Huns invade Italy and sack Aquileia. Death of Attila. Valentinian III murders Aetius. Battle of the Nedao results in break-up of Hunnic Empire. 402 c.420 425 427-9 434 437 441 445 447 448 450 10 Balkans. Theodosius II (402-50) becomes Eastern Roman Emperor. Huns attack Persia. Valentinian III (425-55), Western Roman Emperor. Aetius uses Huns to defeat Franks and Visigoths. Attila becomes king of the Huns with his brother BIeda. Treaty of Marga between Roman and Huns grants Huns massive tribute. Huns destroy the Burgundians at the instigation of Aetius. Huns sack Naissus (Nis). Romans agree to Huns' demand that all land within five days' journey from the Danube should be left uncultivated. Attila has BIeda murdered and becomes sole king of the Huns. Huns invade Greece which is 'ground to dust'. Eastern Romans agree to pay Huns 2,100 pounds of gold per year. Priscus' embassy to Attila. Honoria asks Attila to save her from a loveless marriage. The warlike Marcian becomes Eastern Roman Emperor. The Arabs c. 570 Birth of Muhammad. 622 Muhammad's hijra (migration) from Mecca to Medina. 624 First Muslim victory over Meccans at Badr. 626 Battle of the Khandaq between followers of Muhammad and the Meccans. 628 Byzantine Emperor Heraclius invades Persian Empire and sacks capital Ctesiphon (near Baghdad). 629 First Muslim raid on Jordan. 630 Muslims take Mecca. 632 Death of Muhammad. Accession of first caliph Abu Bakr (632-4). 633 Muslims complete subjugation of Arabian peninsula. 634 Accession of second caliph 'Umar (634--44). Khalid b. al-Walid marches from Iraq to Syria. Persians defeat Muslims at battle of the Bridge in Iraq. 636 Muslims defeat Persians at battle of Qadisiya. Muslims defeat Byzantines at battle of Yarmuk. 641 'Amr b. al-'As leads Muslim conquest of Egypt. Fall of Alexandria. Death of Emperor Heraclius. The Turks 552 Turks replace Juan-Juan as rulers of Central Asian steppes. 568 Turkish mission to Constantinople to discuss silk trade. 583 Turkish Empire breaks up into eastern and western halves. 682-92 Khan Elterish reunites Turkish Empire in Central Asia. 745 Break-up of Turkish Empire in Central Asia. 833-42 Caliph al-Mu'tasim makes Turks the mainstay of the armies of the 'Abbasid caliphs. 869 Death of al-Jahiz, writer about the Turks. 1040 Battle of Dandanqan and entry of Ghuzz Turks into the Middle East. 1055 Ghuzz Turks take Baghdad. Seljuk Tughril Beg becomes sultan. 1063 Alp Arslan (1063-72) is sultan of Seljuk Turkish Empire. 1068 Romanus IV becomes Byzantine Emperor (1068-71). 1071 24 August: Turks defeat Byzantines at battle of Manzikert. Th.e Mongols 1170 Approximate date of birth of Genghis Khan. 1206 Great Kuriltay on the Onon river establishes Genghis Khan as ruler of all the Mongol peoples. 1209 Genghis Khan begins attack on Tangut Empire in western China. 1210 Genghis Khan forced to make peace with Tanguts. 1211 Kuriltay on Kerulen river decides on campaign against Chin rulers of northern China. 1214 Mongols take Chinese capital of Zhongdu (near Beijing). 1216 Genghis Khan destroys Merkit people who had rebelled agaInst him in Mongolia. 1218 Muslim governor of Utrar (Kazakhstan) pillages caravan travelling under Genghis Khan's protection. 1219 Mongols begin conquest of north-east Iran. 1220 February: Utrar taken and sacked by the Mongols. Death of Khwarazm Shah 'Ala aI-Din. 1221 February: Mongols take and sack Merv. 1227 Death of Genghis Khan. Ogedei becomes Great Khan. 1231 Death of JalaI aI-Din, son of the last Khwarazm Shah. 1236 Mongols attack Cuman nomads of southern Russia. 1237 Autumn: Mongols begin invasion of north-east Russia. December: Mongols take Riazan. 1238 February: Mongols take Vladimir, capital of north-east Russia. 651 661-750 670 695 708 711 711-12 712 732 Fall of Caesarea completes Muslim conquest of Syria and Palestine Death of last Sasanian shah Yazdgard III in north-east Iran. Umayyad caliphs rule from Damascus. Muslims begin conquest of Tunisia. Muslims take Carthage and complete conquest of Tunisia. Muslim armies reach Tangier and the Atlantic coast of Morocco. Muslim armies invade Spain. Muslim armies march through southern Afghanistan to invade Sind (Pakistan). Muslims take Samarkand (Uzbekistan). Muslim advance in France stopped by Charles Martel at battle of Poitiers. 1072 1157 CHRONOLOGY Malik Shah (1072-92) is sultan of Turkish Seljuk Empire. Death of Sanjar, last of the great Seljuk sultans. II MONGOLS, HUNS AND VIKINGS This painted stone (eighth/ninth century) from Ardre church on the Baltic island of Gotland gives a clear idea of how Viking ships were sailed and steered, which the archaeological evidence does not reveal. Note also the mounted warrior on the upper register, reminding us that most Viking battles were fought on land. I2 The Vikings 789 First recorded Viking raid at Portland, Dorset. March: Novgorod saved from Mongols by spring thaw. 1239 Autumn: Mongols invade south-west Russia (modern Ukraine). December: Mongols take and sack Kiev. 1241 Spring: Mongol army returns to Volga steppes to await orders of the new Great Khan. 9 April: battle of Liegnitz. Mongols defeat Henry the Pious of Silesia. 11 April: battle of Mohi. Mongols defeat Hungarian army: December: Death of Great Khan Ogedei. 25 December: Mongols sack Gran (on the Danube, east of Vienna). 1251 Great Khan Mongke sends his brother Kubilai to attack China and Hiilegii to attack Iran. 1256 Death of Prince Batu, invader of Europe and founder of the Khanate of the Golden Horde in the Volga steppes. Spring: Hiilegii arrives in Iran. November: Hiilegii takes Assassin strongholds of Maymun-Diz and Alamut. 1258 30 January: Mongols begin attack on Baghdad. 6 February: Mongols take Baghdad. 1260 Spring: Mongols take Aleppo. 3 September: Mongols defeated by Mamelukes at battle of 'Ayn Jalut. 793 795 799 814 840 et seq 834,837 Vikings raid abbey of Lindisfarne on the Northumberland coast. First Viking raid on Ireland. First Viking raid on western France. Death of Charlemagne. Division of the Carolingian Empire. Trading port of Dorestad on the lower Rhine sacked. 843 844 859-61 865 866 869 873 885 889 909-17 911 c.965 991 995-1000 999-1000 1007 1013 1015 1018 1035 1066 CHRONOLOGY Vikings seize island of N oirmoutier near mouth of the Loire and make it their base. First Viking raid on Spain reaches Seville. Hastein and Bjorn lead raid through the Straits of Gibraltar to southern France and northern Italy: Ivar and Halfdan lead Danish Great Army to attack East Anglia. Vikings take York. Foundation of the Danelaw. Vikings leave the Seine after being paid massive tribute. Vikings kill Edmund, last king of East Anglia. Vikings take Repton, capital of Mercia. Vikings besiege Paris. Vikings driven from Seine valley by ado, Count of Paris. Edward the Elder of Wessex takes the Danelaw south of the Humber. Charles the Simple makes a treaty with Rollo establishing duchy of Normandy: Harald Bluetooth and the Danes converted to Christianity: Olaf Tryggvason of Norway defeats East Anglians at battle of Maldon. Olaf Tryggvason converts Norway to Christianity: Althing (Parliament) of Iceland establishes Christianity as the official religion. Svein Forkbeard of Norway begins to raid eastern England. Death of Svein Forkbeard and accession of Cnut. Brian Boru, king of Munster, defeats Vikings at Clontarf. 'Great Army' dissolved. Death of Cnut. Last Scandinavian invasion of England under Harald Hardrada defeated at Stamford Bridge. INTRODUCTION ---~.~:.;.=:-==:=.t@:.~:==~:r+I-.“'---- THE NOMAD 'PARADOX A NINETEENTH-CENTURY ORIENTALIST PAINTER picks up the romantic view of the lone Arab guiding his caravan of camels through the desert. In reality Muhammad grew up in a world in which trading caravans were big business and commercial links meant that his message spread far beyond his homeland in Mecca and Medina. MONGOLS, HUNS AND VIKINGS THE NOMAD PARADOX I N THE HISTORY OF WARFARE it has generally been the case that military superiority lies with the wealthiest states and those with the most developed administration. It is, after all, these states who can afford to train and pay the best soldiers and offer them the most advanced weapons and the most regular supplies. At least since the sixteenth century, finance and administrative efficiency have been key factors in military success. The nomads who ravaged and sometimes dominated the lands of the Middle East, or, in the case of the Huns, central and eastern Europe, were an exception to this rule. Almost by definition, they did not have states and administrative apparatus, they were often dirt poor and entirely unversed in the arts of civilized r6 living. Yet their military prowess was undoubted and groups of nomads often put the armies of settled areas to ignominious flight. In this book I will try to offer some explanations for the 'nomad paradox'. The mobility of the nomads was a major factor. Not only could they surprise an enemy by appearing when they were believed to be far away, or encircling them in battle so that their enemies suddenly realized that they were surrounded, but they could, if necessary, retreat with equalrapidit~All the groups described here had environments into which they could retire and into which their enemies could not follow: the Huns, Turks and Mongols had the great grasslands of eastern Europe and Asia, where lack of grain supplies and brutal weather put off all who were not accustomed to them; the Arabs had the deserts in which they alone could find their way and survive; while the Vikings had the sea, the element in which their superiority was unchallenged. INTRODUCTION Mongols tending their horses. This fourteenth-century miniature by fen fen-fa, a Chinese official in the service of the Mongol khans, shows horses being fed and watered. In the early days of the Mongol conquests, the animals often had to fend for themselves, even digging through the snow with their hooves to find roots to eat. 17 MONGOLS, HUNS AND VIKINGS The Muslim army besieges the Byzantine city of Messina in Sicily which they captured in 842. This miniature, from an eleventh-century Greek manuscript, shows the Arab army wearing turbans and carrying spears and small round shields. There is no sign of any sophisticated siege engine. With this command of the wilderness went the toughness and resistance to hardship which life in these areas brought. Both men and their horses could survive where the soldiers and animals of better endowed areas could not. This in turn made them highly mobile: not for them the lines of pack animals and creaking wagons which could slow the progress of an army down to a few miles a da)!. Nor did they have to worry about the loss of the supply train, since there was none. All adult male nomads were warriors, or at least potential warriors. The insecurity of the wandering life and the lack of established authority meant that everyone had to be able to take up arms and defend themselves and their kin. There were no civilians in these societies. By contrast, the Roman Empire, the powers of the Islamic Middle East and, to a lesser extent, the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms were all societies in which the military was a small specialized group in society: the vast majority of the population were civilians with neither 18 arms nor the experience to use them. The overall numbers of nomads were usually much smaller than those of the settled peoples, but the percentage of those who were mobilized for military action was vastly greater. Many nomads brought with them distinctive methods of fighting, above all mounted archery, the most effective fighting technique of the pre-gunpowder world. This was extremely difficult to counter using conventional military tactics. It was also