ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠡᠵᠡᠨᠲᠦ ᠭᠦᠷᠦᠨ .pdf

ABOUT THE BOOK Th e Mo n g o l Emp ire ch an g ed th e co u rse o f h isto ry an d tran sfo rmed th e map o fth e wo rld . Driv en b y an in sp irin g v isio n fo r p eacefu l wo rld ru le, Gen g h is Kh an – mass-mu rd erin g b arb arian to h is v ictims, g en u is an d d emi-g o d to h is p eo p le –u n ited warrin g clan s an d fo rg ed an emp ire th at sp an n ed Asia, b rin g in g p eo p le, cu ltu res an d relig io n s to g eth er an d o p en in g in terco n tin en tal trad e. Un d er h is g ran d so n , Ku b lai Kh an , th e v isio n ev o lv ed in to a mo re co mp lexid eo lo g y , ju stify in g fu rth er ex p an sio n . Fu elled b y th e b elief th at Heav en h ad g iv en th e wh o le wo rld to th e Mo n g o ls, Ku b lai d o u b led th e emp ire’s size u n til, inth e late th irteen th cen tu ry , h e an d h is family co n tro lled o n e-six th o f th e wo rld ’s lan d area. Alo n g th e way , h e co n q u ered Ch in a, mad e Beijin g h is cap ital an d g av eth e n atio n th e b o rd ers it h as to d ay , estab lish in g th e ro o ts o f th e twen ty -first cen tu ry su p erp o wer. Ch artin g th e rise an d ev en tu al fall o f Gen g h is’s ‘Go ld en Family ’, Jo h n Man ’sau th o ritativ e acco u n t b rin g s th e emp ire v iv id ly to life, p ro v id in g essen tial read in g fo r an y o n e with an in terest in h isto ry , g eo p o litics, an d to d ay ’s co mp lexan d v o latile wo rld . CONTENTS Co v erAb o u t th e Bo o k Title Pag eDed icatio n List o f Map sAck n o wled g emen ts Th e Emp ire: Ru lers an d Reg io n sIn tro d u ctio n Pa rt I Geng his1 ‘His Destin y Ord ain ed b y Heav en ’ 2 Th e Fo u n d er o f His Natio n3 To th e So u th 4 Th e Gates o f Hell5 Th e Great Raid 6 Emp ero r an d Sag e7 Death an d Secrecy Pa rt II Tra nsitio n8 Th e Wo man Wh o Sav ed th e Emp ire 9 Terro r o n Eu ro p e’s Ed g e1 0 Th e Fo u n d atio n s Secu red Pa rt III Kubla i1 1 Westward s Ag ain : Co n q u est an d Defeat 1 2 Th e Tak in g o f Yu n n an1 3 In Xan ad u 1 4 Ku b lai Emerg es1 5 A New Cap ital 1 6 Emb racin g Tib et, an d Bu d d h ism1 7 Th e Co n q u est o f th e So u th 1 8 Bu rn ed b y th e Risin g Su n1 9 Ch allen g e fro m th e Heartlan d 2 0 Wh at Ku b lai Did fo r Ch in a2 1 Kamik aze 2 2 A Mu rd er, an d a Secret Grav e Pa rt IV Afterma th2 3 Th e Ou ter Reach es o f Emp ire 2 4 Grav e-h u n tin g o n th e Sacred Mo u n tain2 5 Wh at th e Mo n g o ls Did fo r Us 2 6 Ho w to Su rv iv e Death Afterwo rd : Back to th e Fu tu rePictu re Sectio n Bib lio g rap h yPictu re Ack n o wled g emen ts In d exAb o u t th e Au th o r Also b y Jo h n ManCo p y rig h t THE MONGOL EMPIRE Geng his Kha n, His Heirs a nd the Fo unding o fMo dern China J OHN MAN Fo r TW a nd DW-M MAPS Th e Wo rld o f th e Mo n g o ls, c 1 1 5 0Th e Emp ire at th e Death o f Gen g h is Kh an , 1 2 2 7 Th e Mo n g o l Emp ire in 1 2 9 4Fro m th e Emp ire, 1 0 Natio n s ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With th an k s to : Ch ris Atwo o d , Pro fesso r o f Mo n g o lian Histo ry , In d ian aUn iv ersity ; Ch arles Bawd en , Emeritu s Pro fesso r, an d fo rmer Pro fesso r o f Mo n g o lian at th e Sch o o l o f Orien tal an d African Stu d ies, Lo n d o n , wh o started itall; Dr Damb y n Bazarg u r an d Bad raa; Siq in Bro wn , SOAS; Yu efan Den g , Sto n y b ro o k Un iv ersity , NY; Dalai, h isto rian , Ulaan b aatar; Ru th Du n n ell,Asso ciate Pro fesso r o f Asian Histo ry an d Directo r o f In tern atio n al Stu d ies, Ken y o n Co lleg e, Gamb ier, Oh io ; Erd en eb aatar, In stitu te o f An imal Hu sb an d ry ,Ulaan b aatar; Step h en Haw, fo r v ital g u id an ce o n Marco Po lo ’s Ch in a; ‘Helen ’, Ren min Un iv ersity , Beijin g , fo r wo n d erfu l in terp retin g ; Pro fesso r Tso g t-Och irIsh d o rj, Head , Dep artmen t o f Histo rio g rap h y , Histo ry In stitu te, Mo n g o lian Acad emy o f Scien ce; Jo rig t an d Nasan b ay ar o f th e Mo n g o lian Lan g u ag eIn stitu te, Sch o o l o f Mo n g o lian Stu d ies, In n er Mo n g o lia Un iv ersity , Ho h h o t; Lu c Kwan ten an d Lilly Ch en , Big Ap p le-Tu ttle Mo ri, Beijin g an d Sh an g h ai;Pro fesso r Yao Dali, Histo ry Dep artmen t, Fu d an Un iv ersity , Sh an g h ai; Lars Laaman , Histo ry Dep artmen t, SOAS, fo r h is h elp with Sh arald ai (seeBib lio g rap h y ) an d h is tran slato r, Geo k Ho o n Williams; Yu an -ch u Ru b y Lam, Dep artmen t o f Ch in ese, Wellesley Co lleg e, MA; Du Jian Lu , Xi Xia In stitu te,Nin g x ia Un iv ersity ; Rich ard Jo h n Ly n n , fo r h is Xan ad u v erse tran slatio n s; To m Man , o f Perio li-Man , Ox fo rd , fo r p u ttin g flesh o n th e Pleasu re Do me; Dav idMo rg an , fo rmerly Pro fesso r o f Histo ry , Un iv ersity o f Wisco n sin -Mad iso n ; Nach u g , Directo r, In stitu te fo r Gen g h is Kh an Stu d ies, Ed sen Kh o ro o (Gen g h isKh an Mau so leu m); Oy u n San jaasu ren , MP, lead er o f Citizen s’ Will-Rep u b lican Party , Head o f Zo rig Fo u n d atio n ; Ig o r d e Rach ewiltz, Sch o o l o f Pacific an dAsian Stu d ies, Au stralian Natio n al Un iv ersity , fo r v ital an d u n stin tin g g u id an ce; Pan o ramic Jo u rn ey s, to g eth er with Esee, two Ny amas, Rav i, Refik a, Nan cy an dJo an ; my Mo n g o l g u id es, Go y o tsetseg Resto n (Go y o ) an d Tu men ; Ran d all Sasak i, Tex as A Sain jirg al, research er, Gen g h is Kh an Mau so leu m; Sh arald ai, th eo lo g ian , Gen g h is Kh an Mau so leu m; Pro fesso r No riy u k i Sh iraish i, Niig ata Un iv ersity , fo r h is co mmen ts an d g u id an ce in Av rag a; Pro fesso r Ch ris Ty ler-Smith , fo rmerly at th e Dep artmen t o f Bio ch emistry , Ox fo rd Un iv ersity , fo r h is h elp o n Gen g h is’s g en etic leg acy ; Pro fesso r Wei Jian , Ren min Un iv ersity ,Beijin g , fo r u n iq u e in sig h ts an d in sp iratio n al g u id an ce; ‘William’ Sh o u fo r th e Xan ad u trip ; Jack Weath erfo rd , Macalester Co lleg e, MN; Grah am Tay lo r,Karak o ru m Ex p ed itio n s, Ulaan b aatar; Fran ces Wo o d , British Lib rary ; Lijia Zh an g , Beijin g , fo r frien d sh ip ; as alway s, Felicity Bry an an d h er team; an d inTran swo rld Do u g Yo u n g , Hen ry Vin es an d Sh eila Lee. Th e q u o tatio n s fro m Th e S ecret Histo ry are fro m d e Rach ewiltz’s v ersio n (seeBib lio g rap h y ), with p ermissio n fro m Ko n in k lijk e Brill NV, Leid en , Neth erlan d s. A n o te o n sp ellin gIn tran sliteratin g Ch in ese, p in y in is n o w stan d ard , b u t it still o v erlap s th e o ld Wad e– Giles sy stem. I u se wh ich ev er seems mo re ap p ro p riate. Sp ellin g s o fp erso n al n ames v ary wid ely . ‘Gen g h is’ is p ro n o u n ced ‘Ch in g is’ in Mo n g o l, an d sh o u ld really b e sp elled lik e th at in En g lish (to o v erco me a co mmo n fau lt: th e Gis so ft, as in ‘Geo rg e’, n o t h ard , as in ‘g o o d ’). I retain ‘Gen g h is’ o u t o f d eferen ce to trad itio n . I u se th e mo re familiar ‘Ku b lai’ rath er th an ‘Kh u b ilai’, ‘Qu b ilai’ o r‘Ku b la’. Xan ad u is ‘Sh an g d u ’ (Up p er Cap ital) in Ch in ese; b u t Xan ad u is trad itio n al in En g lish , th an k s to Co lerid g e. INTRODUCTION THE IDEA FOR th is b o o k came fro m wo rk in g o n a p ro p o sal fo r a series o f films. Iwas in Ho h h o t, In n er Mo n g o lia, with a co rp o rate b o ss wh o was in terested in p ro mo tin g Mo n g o l cu ltu re. On e o f h is amb itio n s was to co mmissio n a featu refilm to tell th e sto ry o f Gen g h is Kh an . It wo u ld b e b ig b u d g et, $ 1 0 0 millio n in Ho lly wo o d terms, ap p ealin g to au d ien ces wo rld wid e. Nev er min d o th er films o nth e same su b ject – n o o n e h ad d o n e Gen g h is’s wh o le life. He h ad alread y d iscu ssed th e p ro ject with th ree Ho lly wo o d scrip twriters. Th in g s h ad n o t g o n ewell. I co u ld see wh y . He was in terested in h isto ry , b u t k n ew little ab o u t n arrativ e tech n iq u es; Ho lly wo o d scrip twriters k n o w a lo t ab o u t n arrativ e, b u tcare little ab o u t h isto ry . I saw o n e scrip t b y a well-k n o wn writer. It h ad th is b o d y -co p y in an o p en in g scen e: Th e d esert g iv in g way to g rass – sp arse an d flat. A wo man , so litary , asy mb o l o f sen su o u s femin in e g race, carries water b alan ced o n h er h ead . Her h ip s sway timelessly . It wo u ld n ev er wo rk , n o t ju st b ecau se in Mo n g o lia n o wo man ev er carried watero n h er h ead , let alo n e d o in g so wh ile sy mb o lizin g g race with h ip s sway in g timelessly . It wo u ld n o t wo rk b ecau se o f th e h isto ry . Gen g h is’s sto ry is to o b ig tob e co n tain ed in a sin g le film, ev en fo r a b rillian t scrip twriter willin g to b eco me familiar with med iev al Mo n g o lia, Ch in a, Ko rea, Tib et, Jap an , Ru ssia, Geo rg ia,Hu n g ary , sh aman ism, Islam, Bu d d h ism an d Dao ism. Yo u co u ld n o mo re co mp ress it in to a h u n d red o r so min u tes th an y o u co u ld th e Seco n d Wo rld War.It’s n o t ju st th e ran g e o f material th at mak es it imp o ssib le. It wo u ld n ’t wo rk b ecau se Gen g h is’s emp ire is o n ly p art o f th e sto ry . He d ied h alfway th ro u g h . Hisg ran d so n Ku b lai to o k u p wh ere Gen g h is left o ff, d o u b lin g th e emp ire’s size o v er th e n ex t sev en ty y ears. A sin g le b o o k , p o ssib ly ; a sin g le film, n o .So , I to ld h im, h e wo u ld h av e to th in k rea lly b ig . Ho w ab o u t n o t o n e film, b u t n in e? Ho w ab o u t n o t $ 1 0 0 millio n , b u t $ 1 b illio n ? Th at wo u ld g iv e sco p e to tell th e fu ll sto ry .He lo v ed th e id ea. Th e p ro b lem is it will n ev er h ap p en , n o t b ecau se o f th e h isto ry , wh ich d iv id es q u ite n eatly in to n in e self-co n tain ed sto ries, b u t b ecau seo f its sco p e. Ho w o n earth d o y o u write n in e films all at o n ce – an d th ey h av e to b e all written to g eth er, b ecau se th ey in terrelate – let alo n e sh o o t th em? Th e d iscu ssio n h ad a p o sitiv e o u tco me. It mad e me tak e th e lo n g v iew an d lo o kb ack o n th e Mo n g o l emp ire fro m to d ay , with Asia d o min ated b y th e emp ire’s to p su ccesso r-state, Ch in a.On th e map , Ch in a is, as its n ame say s, zh o n g g u o , o r Cen tral Natio n , a sin g u larity , a u n ity , lin k in g th e Pacific to Cen tral Asia, th e g rav elly wastes o f th eGo b i to su b tro p ical Ho n g Ko n g . Bu t th e v iew fro m in n er sp ace su g g ests o th erwise. Op en Go o g le Earth , fin d Ch in a, d rift fro m west to east fo r 4 ,0 0 0 -p lu sk ilo metres, an d y o u will see th at eco lo g ically th e n atio n is d iv id ed . Th e west an d n o rth are all b ro wn s an d g rey s, mark in g th e d eserts o f Xin jian g , th e iceb o u n dwrin k les o f th e Tib etan p lateau an d th e g rasslan d s o f Mo n g o lia. Th ere are few p ictu re-ico n s o n screen . Click o n so me an d y o u will see wh y – h u g e sk ies, lu n arlan d scap es, u n n amed mo u n tain s, h ard ly a city an d n o t man y p eo p le. Wan d erin g v ery ro u g h ly fro m so u th -west to n o rth -east, a co lo u r ch an g e mak esa fu zzy b o u n d ary . Th e b ro wn s o f h ig h an d sp arse wastelan d s tu mb le in to lo wlan d g reen ery . Alo n g with Ch in a’s two g reat riv ers, th e Yello w Riv er an d th eYan g tze, th e g reen su rg es east, o v er fertile lo wlan d s, u n til it b u lg es in to th e Pacific lik e a well-fed p au n ch . Th is h alf is v ein ed with ro ad s, crammed withcities, ex u b eran t with p ictu res an d teemin g with ab o u t a fifth o f all h u man ity . Fro m Earth o rb it, Ch in a lo o k s as if it is mad e o f two d ifferen t p arts.In h isto ry , th ere were man y mo re th an two . On ce u p o n a time, 8 5 0 y ears ag o , Ch in a was n o t to d ay ’s Ch in a. It was d iv id ed in to six .fn 1 Befo re th at, d o wn th ecen tu ries, o th er p arts came an d wen t, so metimes a d o zen o r mo re, seld o m fewer th an six , so metimes th ru stin g westward s as if feelin g a way to ward s In d ia,so metimes scrab b lin g to th e n o rth -east in to Man ch u ria an d Ko rea. In fast- fo rward , th e map o f Ch in ese h isto ry lo o k s lik e a cell-cu ltu re d iv id in g , g ro win g ,d y in g b ack , b u t alway s a p lu rality , u n ited o n ly b y an id ea o f u n ity th at in th e early d ay s d efin itely d id n o t in clu d e th e v ery n o n -Ch in ese areas o f Tib et o r th ed eserts an d g rasslan d s b ey o n d th e Great Wall. Wh at b ro u g h t th ese p arts to g eth er?Fo r th e start o f th e an swer, stay o n Go o g le Earth , mo u se y o u r way u p to Beijin g , in th e to p rig h t p art o f th e g reen b it, th en o n n o rth west, acro ss th e g rey -b ro wn g rasslan d s th at sp an Ch in a’s n o rth ern b o rd er in to wh at is n o w Mo n g o lia p ro p er. If y o u search aro u n d fo r a fo cal p o in t, y o u may fin d th e twin b o rd er to wn s wh ere th e o n ly railway co mes th ro u g h . Th ere’s n o t mu ch to see. Yo u aren o w o v er th e Go b i, wh ere th e g rass is so scattered o n th e g rav el p lain s th at o n ly a camel wo u ld co n sid er it as fo o d . In su mmer, ramsh ack le tru ck s with twotrailers b elch th eir way n o rth ward s acro ss wastelan d s th at y o u mig h t call track less, ex cep t th at th e Go b i h as man y track s an d n o ro ad s. Th e track s remainth ro u g h th e win ter, b ecau se th ey are fro zen . Th e d esert may b eco me temp o rarily track less in early su mmer, wh en it is flay ed b y d u st sto rms th at co u ld strip awayy o u r ey elid s. Head n o rth -west, fo llo win g th e railway lin e. Halfway to th e cap ital,Ulaan b aatar, g o n o rth ward s fo r 8 0 k ilo metres u n til y o u co me to a riv er, th e Kh erlen , wh ich y o u can ’t miss b ecau se it sweep s ro u n d in a g reat b en d , ru n n in gin fro m th e n o rth an d h ead in g away n o rth -east. Fo llo w it u p stream, an d y o u co me to fo rested rid g es an d mo u n tain s k n o wn co llectiv ely as th e Kh en tii.If y o u wan t to u n d erstan d wh y Ch in a is p o litically u n ited an d th e sh ap e it is to d ay , th is is wh ere th e sto ry starts, o n a mo u n tain sid e wh ere, in th e y ear 1 1 8 0 o rth ereab o u ts, a y o u n g man , h ard ly mo re th an a teen ag er, h as b een h id in g fro m en emies wh o wan t to k ill h im. Th e b o y ’s n ame is Temu jin , an d at th is mo men tv ery few p eo p le h av e h eard o f h im, b ecau se h e is d o wn , an d v ery n early o u t. Bu t n o t q u ite. So o n , h e will b eco me rath er b etter k n o wn as Gen g h is Kh an .He is th e k ey – h is ch aracter, h is v isio n , h is b eliefs, h is id eo lo g y an d h is talen t as a lead er. Ev ery o n e k n o ws ab o u t h is ru th lessn ess, o f co u rse: millio n s d ead ,d o zen s o f cities ru in ed . Less wid ely k n o wn is h is g en iu s fo r lead ersh ip , an d le