ᠮᠡᠳᠡᠭᠡ ᠵᠠᠩᠬᠢ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠦᠢᠯᠡᠴᠢᠯᠡᠭᠡ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠡᠭᠦᠰᠦᠯ .pdf

FrancisDvornik TheAncientNearEast,Persia,Greece,Rome,Byzantium,theArabMuslimEm-pires,theMongolEmpire,China,Muscovy. * $15.00of IntelligenceServices TTieAncientNearEast,Persia,Greece,Rome,Byzantium,theArabMuslimEm-pires,theMongolEmpire,China,MuscovyFRANCISDVORNIK 350pages,21illustrations,18maps,6bibliographies,index Efficient,swift,anddependableintelli-genceserviceswereessentialtothegrowthandwell-beingofeverymajorempirein recordedhistory,asDr.FrancisDvornikre-veals.Tacticsanddevicesofamazingsubtle-ty,suchassecretpolice,counter-intelligence, and,aboveall,swiftcommunications,wereemployedevenbytheearlycivilizationsoftheancientNearEast.Theseservicesledto theestablishmentofthousandsofmilesofroadnetworkswithfortifiedwaystations,andpostsystemscompletewithdraftmules, relayridersonhorseback,andcarriagesusedas“stagecoaches.“Ingeniousfireandsmokesignalsystemsweredevised,bywhich informationcouldberelayedacrosswholecontinentswithinhours.Carrier-pigeonpostservices,possiblyimportedfromChinaby earlyArabictraders,providedincrediblyswiftcommunications.Perhapsthesupremeaccomplishmentin itstimewasthevastin-telligencenetworkestablishedbytheMon-golEmpire,whichextendedfromthePacificOceanwestward totheheartofcentralEurope.TheMuscovitestate,profitingfromtheMongolexampleandthecumulativeex- perienceofalltheeasternempiresofthepast,expandedfromasmall,isolatedprin-cipalitytotheimmenseRussianempireof IvanIV,theTerrible,withwhosedeaththebookconcludes.“Sometimes,”writesDr.Dvornikinhis Preface,“evenbookshavetheirownhistory,andthepresentworkisnoexception.”In (continuedonbackflap ) JacketDesignbyNedGlattauer it-apAJHOidfji fhi $ orph^rrt*-7 SPti[a £LiTHRACEaclc fortunately,thatdealingwiththewarsforAlexander’sinheritance isintact.WelearnfromDiodorusthat 44 OriginsofIntelligenceServicesthePersianinstitutionsandthemeansoftransmittingimportant intelligencecontinuedtoexistandtobeemployedbyAlexander’ssuccessors.Inoneinstance,weevenlearnadditionallythatincertainpartsofPersia,importantnewswastransmittedvery fastbytheuseofsound.WhenreportinghowaconsiderablenumberofPersianbowmencouldbemobilizedinaveryshorttime,Diodorus says(Bk.XIX,17):AlthoughsomeofthePersiansweredistant athirtydays’journey,theyallreceivedtheorderonthatveryday,thankstotheskillfularrangementofthepostsoftheguard,amatterthat itisnotwelltopassoverinsilence.Persiaiscutbymanynarrowvalleysandhasmanylookoutpoststhatarehighandclosetogether,onwhichthoseoftheinhabitantswhohadthe loudestvoiceshadbeenstationed.Sincethesepostswereseparatedfromeachotherbythedistanceatwhichaman’svoicecanbeheard,thosewhoreceivedtheorderpassed itoninthesamewaytothenext,andthentheseinturntoothersuntilthemessagehadbeendeliveredattheborderofthesatrapy. Inanotherpassage(Bk.XIX,37)welearnthattotransporturgentmessages,themessengersweregivenfastdromedarieswhichcould“travelcontinuouslyforalmostfifteenhundredstades,”oraboutone hundredandseventymiles.Furtheron,welearnthattheoldPersianpostserviceinAsiaMinorwasre-establishedandkeptinworkingorderbyAntigonus,a rivalofSeleucus,thefounderoftheSeleucidpoliticalpower(Bk.XIX,57):“HehimselfestablishedatintervalsthroughoutallthatpartofAsiaofwhichhewasmasterasystemoffire-signalsanddispatch- carriers,bymeansofwhichheexpectedtohavequickserviceinallhisbusiness.’’There iseveryreasontosupposethatallthesesystemscon-tinuedtofunctionwhenSeleucusbecamemasterofthevastempireafterAntigonushadfallenin battle.ThepostalandmilitaryroadsfoundedbytheAssyriansandPersiansseemtohavebeenkeptingoodorder,which isquitenaturalwhenwethinkofthecontinuousfightinginwhichSeleucus’ssuccessorswereengaged.ThereareindicationspointingtothefactthatRomanmilitarymapsofthose regionswerecopiedfromthemapsoftheSeleucidperiod.AlthoughnonewroadsappeartohavebeenbuiltintheformerPersianEmpireundertheSeleucids,theoldPersianpostalroadmayhavebeenex- tendedintotheprovinceofFerghanaontheJaxarteswhenitwasconqueredbytheSeleucids.TheoldPersiantraditionofbuildingroadsforcommerceand administrationwasfollowedalsointheParthianempire.The 45IntelligenceintheAncientNearEastoriginalParthis,correspondingtomodernKhorasan,becamepart oftheSeleucidempire,butwonitsindependencein249b.c.underArsaces,founderoftheArsaciddynasty.TheArsacidsincreasedtheirswayoversomeoftheprovincesoftheSeleucidsand, inspiteoftheprogressoftheRomansintotheEast,theyremainedinpoweruntila.d.226,whenthelastArsacidswerekilledbyArtaxerxes (ArdashirI).HeisthefounderoftheSassaniddynastywhichre-newedthepastgloryoftheoldPersianempireasithadflourishedundertheAchaemenids. FromthetimeoftheParthianempireispreservedadocumentcalledTheParthianStationsascribedtoIsidoreofCharax.Itisadescriptionoftheoverlandtraderoutegivinganitinerary ofthecaravantrailfromAntiochtothebordersofIndia.ItlistsallthesupplystationsmaintainedbytheParthiangovernmentandalso theinterveningdistances.ItseemstobeasummarytranscriptionfromalargerworkdescribingtheroadsysteminParthia.Thisworkmaybeconnectedwiththe“DescriptionoftheWorld”which, ac-cordingtoPliny(Bk.VI,141)wascompiledbyIsidoreasacom-missionbyAugustus.Thelatterwishedtocollect allthegeographicalandotherinformationaboutParthiaandArmenia,whichtheRomanarmywasabouttoinvade,underthecommandoftheEmperor’s grandson,Gaius.Theworkisfragmentarilypreserved.Thesupplystationshadtoserveascaravansariesformerchants,butthedocu-mentalsocontainsanumberofinferencesgivingindicationsabout therelationsofParthiawithitssubjectstatesandtheneighboringforeignpowers.Itseemsthattheroadsandstationswereusedforotherthan justcommercialpurposes.ItshouldbestressedthattheParthianstationsfollowtheancientrouteestablishedearlierbytheAssyriansandPersians,whichshows usthattheoldpostaltraditionsforthepassageofintelligencewerecontinuedbytheParthians.TheSassanianEmpire isratheranationalPersianorIranianEmpire.Its“kingofkings”revivedalltheAchaemenidtraditionsandtriedtoextendtheirpoweroverlandswhichwereformerly partoftheAchaemenidEmpire.Althoughwehavenoofficialdescriptionofthepostserviceduringthisperiod,wecansupposewithcertaintythattheSassaniankingsfollowedtheAchaemenid traditioneveninthisrespectinreorganizingthepostalserviceasithadfunctionedintheAchaemenidEmpire.Theinterestsofthestatedemandedtherapidexpeditionofordersand lettersfromthekingstotheirsatraps,andofinformationconcerningtheprovincesbythegovernorstothekingandhis vizir.Besidescouriersonhorseback,aserviceofrunnerswasestablishedwithstationsatshorterdistances. 46 OriginsofIntelligenceServicesTheserunnersappeartohavebeenemployedmostlyinstrictlyIran- ianlands;acamelpostservicefunctionedmainlyinSyriacandArabiccountries. Itisprobablethatthedirectorofrelayswasalsochargedtoobservehowtheadministrationoftheprovincesfunctioned,andtomakereportstothecourt.At least,asweshallsee,suchwasthedutyofthepostmasterwhenPersiahadbecomepartoftheCaliphate.TheArabMuslimscontinuedtousethepostserviceastheyhadfound itinPersia.Itseemsthatatcertainperiodssuchaninformationservicewasexpectedfromthejudgesofthecantons.Anyhow,theSassanian kingsdidpossessasecretservice.Christensen(p.130)stressesthatthissecretservicewasespeciallyresentedbythepopulationunderChosroes I,butthekingdefendedthesystem,declaringthathewouldappointashis“eye”onlyhonestmen. CHAPTERI:BIBLIOGRAPHYAll classicalreferencesarequotedfromtheeditionandtranslationofTheLoebClassicalLibrary(HarvardUniversityPress)unlessotherwisestated. Aeschylus,Agamemnon;DiodorusSiculus,LibraryofHistory;Herodo-tus,HistoryofthePersianWars;PlinytheElder,NaturalHistory;PlinytheYounger,Letters;Polybius,TheHistories;Xenophon,Cyropaedia; Anabasis.AssyrianRecords,seeLuckenbill.Bickerman, E.J.,InstitutionsdesSeleucides(Paris,1938).Boghazkoi,KeilschrifikundeausBoghazkoi,VorderasiatischeAbteilungderStaatlichenMuseenzuBerlin(Berlin,1921—) . Breasted,J.H.,BattleofKadesh(Chicago,1904).AHistoryofEgypt(NewYork,1912).AncientRecordsofEgypt,HistoricalDocuments(Chicago,1906-7), 4vols.,citedasRecords.Christensen,A.M.,L’lransouslesSassanids(Copenhagen,1944).TheDariusSculpturesandInscriptionsofDariustheGreat,eds. L.V.King,R.C.Thompson,E.A.WallisBudge(London,1907).Debevoise,Neilson, C.,APoliticalHistoryofParthia(Chicago,1938).Fischl,H.,FernsprechundMeldewesenimAltertum(Schweinfurt,1909).Fish, T.,“LettersfromtheWarFrontinAncientMesopotamia,”BulletinoftheJohnRylandsLibrary,26(1942),pp.287-306.Fries, C.,“ZurBabylonischenFeuerpost,”Klio,4(1904),pp.117ff.'^Harper,R.F.,AssyrianandBabylonianLettersbelongingtothekouyunjikCollectionsoftheBritishMuseum,inDecennialPublicationsofthe UniversityofChicago,2ndseries(Chicago,1902). 47IntelligenceintheAncientNearEastIsidorusofCharax,ParthianStations,ed.byW.H.Schoff(Philadelphia, 1914).Kieport,H.,AManualofAncientGeography(London,1881).Kdster,A.,SchiffafartundHandelsverkehrdesostlichenMittelmee resim3.U.2.Jahrtausendv.Chr.(Leipzig,1924).Luckenbill,D.D.,AncientRecordsofAssyriaandBabylonia(Chicago, 1926-27),citedasAs.Records.Maspero,GastonC.C.,LifeinAncientEgyptandAssyria(NewYork,1892).Meissner,Bruno,BabylonienundAssyrien(Heidelberg,1920-25), 2vols.Mercer,S.A.B.,TheTell-el-AmarnaTablets(Toronto,1939),2vols.Mitteis, L.,Wilcken,U.,GrundziigeundChrestomathiederPapyruskunde(Leipzig,1912)(“PapyrusPetrie,”vol.I,2,no.1).NicolaiDamasceni,Fragmenta,ed.C.Muller,Fragmentahistoricorum graecorum(Paris,1849),vol.3,pp.361ff.Noldeke,Theodor,GeschichtederPerserundAraberzurZeitderSassani-den.AusderarabischenChronikdesTabariiibersetzt(Leiden,1879). Olmstead,A.T.,HistoryofAssyria(NewYork,1923).“PapyrusPetrie”(seeMitteis,L).Petrie,FlindersW.M.,SocialLifeinAncientEgypt(London,1923). Pirenne,Jacques,Histoiredelacivilisationdel’Egypteancienne(Neu-chatel,1961-63).Preisigke, F.,“DieptolemaischeStaatspost,”Klio,7(1907),pp.241-277.Pseudo-Aristotle,DeMundo ,transl.byE.S.Forster(W.D.Ross,TheWorksofAristotletranslated ) (Oxford,1931),vol.3.Ramsay,WilliamM.,TheHistoricalGeographyofAsiaMinor(London,1890). Records(seeBreasted).Rostovtzeff,M.I.,TheSocialandEconomicHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld(Oxford,1941),ontransportofelephants, vol.1,pp.383ff.,andvol.3,p.1413.Tarn,W.W.,AlexandertheGreat(Cambridge,1948),2vols. Tell-el-AmarnaTablets,ed.J.A.Knudtzon,DieEl-AmarnaTafeln(Leipzig,1910-1915),2vols.;ed.S.A.B.Mercer,TheTell-el-AmarnaTablets,2vols.(Toronto,1939). Tozer,H.F.,AHistoryofAncientGeography(Cambridge,1897).Weidner,E.F.,PolitischeDokumenteausKleinasien.DieStaatsvertrage inakadischerSpracheausdemArchivvonBoghazkdi—BoghazkdiStudien(Leipzig,1923).Weissbach, F.H.,Bang,W.,DieAltpersischenKeilinschrifteninUmschriftundUbersetzung.Assyriol.Bibliothek,vol.10(Leipzig,1908).Westberg, F.,“ZurTopographiedesHerodot,diePersischeKonigsstrasse,”Klio,4(1906),pp.259ff.Wilcken,U.,AlexandertheGreat(London,1922). Wilson,E.,LiteratureoftheOrient(London,NewYork,1902).Winckler,H.,AltorientalischeForschungen(Leipzig,1893-1906). IntelligenceintheRomanEmpireII 1.RepublicanPeriodLackofInterestinIntelligenceinEarlyRomeandRea-sonsforRomanExpansion—IntelligenceServiceofthe Carthaginians,RivalsoftheRomans—Hannibal’sMasteryofIntelligence—ScipiotheYoungerLearnsfromHannibal—T.SemproniusGracchusandthe MacedonianRelayService—CatotheElderValuestheImportanceofRapidInformation—SlownessofRepub-licanInformationSystem—MessengersandTheir Status.2.PeriodofCivilWarsRomanTradersand FinancialAgentsinNewlyCon-queredLands—MithridatesofPontus,HisIntelligenceinAsia,Rome,andSpain—Cicero’sInformationon IntelligenceinAsia—ThePiratesandInsecurityofSeaTravel—Caesar’sUnderstandingofMilitary,Political,Geographical,andEconomicIntelligence—Caesar’s InformationonGallicIntelligenceService—CaesarEstablishesInformationServicebyRelaysofHorsemen—HisTragicDeath. 3.ImperialPeriodRiseofOctavian-AugustusandPersonalExperienceinImportanceofIntelligence—FoundingoftheStatePost (cursuspubiicus)—OrientalInfluencesonItsOrganiza-tion-OrganizationoftheStatePost—ThemansionesandChanging-Stations—Transformationofthefru- mentariifromGrainDealerstoIntelligenceAgents—ThespeculatorsandthefrumentariiasIntelligenceAgentsoftheEmperors—ThefrumentariiasPolicemen andAgentsinPersecutionofChristians—Thefru-48 49IntelligenceintheRomanEmpirementarii,aRoman“Gestapo”?—TheirSuppressionbyDiocletian—Roman IntelligencefromAbroad—RomanandGreekGeographicalandEthnographicalIntel-ligence—PlinytheElderandTacitus—TheInformation Serviceonthelimes. 1.RepublicanPeriodWhenwebearinmindtherapidevolutionofintelligenceservices intheempiresoftheNearEast,andwhenweconsiderhowgreatlytherulersofEgypt,Babylonia,Assyria,andPersiavaluedgoodintel-ligenceforthedefenseoftheircountries, fortheirpoliticalex-pansion,andforthesecurityoftheirdynasties,itisrathersurprisingtoseethattheRomans,whosedominationfinallyextendedoverthe greaterpartoftheancientNearEasternempires,manifestedintheearlyperiodoftheirhistoryverylittleinterestinintelligence.Thisfact isthemorestartlingtothosewhobelievethattheRomanex-pansionoverItaly,WesternEurope,theAdriatic,Greece,theMedi-terraneanlands,andtheNearEastwasdirectedfromthebeginning byruthlessimperialismandathirstforpoweranddomination.Wehaveseenthatagoodintelligenceservicewas,intheEast,oneofthemoststrikingcharacteristicsofabsolutepowerandabasis forsuc-cessfulpoliticalexpansion.Butthislong-heldopinionconcerningtheexpansionofRomanpower overtheancientworldseemstoneedradicalcorrection.TheRomanEmpirebeganasasmallcity-statesimilarinextentandor-ganizationtotheGreekcityrepublics.The firstconquestswhichmadeRomethedominantpowerinLatiumandsouthernEtruriaweremadebypowerfulEtruscanlordswhohadestablishedthem- selvesinthecityandruleditasabsolutekings.Aftertheexpulsionofthealiendynastyandtheestablishmentofarepublic,ruledbytwoconsulselectedeveryyearbytheSenate,Romeshrankagain toacomparativelysmallstate,surroundedbyhostileandindependentneighbors.InspiteoftheiralliancewiththeLatins,theRomansmade littleprogressintheircampaignsagainsttheEtruscanstatesthatthreatenedtheirindependence.TheEtruscanswereweakenedbytheGreeksadvancingfromSicilywhowrestedfromthemthe masteryoftheseas,andbytheCelts—theGauls—who,afterestab-lishingthemselvesinthelandsborderingtheAdriatic,crossedtheApenninesandinvadedEtruriaproper.OnlythenweretheRomans abletodefeatthesouthernEtrurianstatesandaddtheirlandstotheRomanterritory. 50 OriginsofIntelligenceServicesAllthesecampaignswerewagedbytheRomansnotsomuchwith aviewtoconqueringnewlandsastodefendingtheirowninde-pendenceandveryexistence.Oneofthereasonsforthisslowprog-ressmighthavebeenthealmostcompletelackofanyorganized intelligenceservice.WefindmuchevidenceofthisintheRomanhistorianLivy’sdescriptionoftheseevents.Ononeoccasion,whentheEtruscansmadearazziaagainstRome,accordingtoLivy(Bk. I,14),onlythe“. . .suddenstampede[ofthefarmersfrom]thefieldsintothecitybroughtthefirsttidingsofwar.”Onanotheroccasion(Livy,Bk. I,37),thecitylearnedofavictoriousbattleonlywhenthewatersoftheTiberbroughttheshieldsoffallenenemiesinsidethewalls.ThearmyoftheEtruscans,tryingtore-establishtheirexpelled kinginRome,seemsalsotohavetakentheRomanscompletelybysur-prise,althoughtheSenateofthecitywas,accordingtoLivy(Bk.II,9-10),awareofthedangerfromthisquarterthreateningtheexistence ofthenewRepublic.Nevertheless,apparentlynoprecautionsweretaken,andthecitizenshastilywithdrewfromtheirfieldstothecitywhentheenemyappeared.Andtheenemywouldhavecapturedt