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Encyclopedia of mongolia and the mongol empire Christopher P. Atwood Indiana University, Bloomington Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire Copyright © 2004 by Christopher P. Atwood All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Atwood, Christopher Pratt, 1964– Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire / Christopher P. Atwood. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4381-2922-8 (e-book) 1. Mongolia—Encyclopedias. I. Title. DS798.4.A88 2004 951.7’3’003—dc222003061696 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quanti- ties for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Maps by Dale Williams Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. For Jeffrey and Claire w List of Illustrations and Maps iv Introduction vii Entries A to Z 1 Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 625 Chronology 630 Bibliography 638 Index 640 CONTENTS iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS Photographs the Türks; the Uighurs; and the Kitans—and their archaeological remains are given sepa- rate articles. Throughout their history, these peoples’ rela- tions with China have proved crucial; the peculiar features of these relations are described in the article on the tribute system. The Mongol Empire is summarized in the article of that name, in which reference is made to further articles on the great khans, the major battles, and the institu- tions of the empire. At its height, the Mongol Empire touched the destiny of almost all Eurasia, and readers will find articles on all the major peoples and dynasties conquered by the Mongols as well as those who success- fully resisted the Mongol invasions. Contrary to the stereotypes, the Mongols were very much interested in the cultures of the peoples around them. Articles on the empire’s religious policy and on the four main religions of the empire—Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and Islam—and on history writing under the empire— Christian, East Asian, Islamic, and Mongolian—provide an entryway for exploring the Mongols’ cultural interac- tion with the conquered peoples. In the third generation after its founding, the Mongol Empire broke up into four rival empires, or khanates, each ruling a different part of Eurasia and headed by a dif- ferent branch of the Mongol imperial family: the Il- Khanate in the Middle East, the Chaghatay Khanate in Central Asia, the Golden Horde on the Russian steppes, and the Yuan dynasty in East Asia. Separate articles survey each of these khanates and provide cross-references to articles on significant persons, cultural achievements, and historical events. The three western dynasties shared a common fate over the course of the 14th century, breaking up amid dynastic rivalries that threw up previously unim- portant branches of the imperial family or new Mongol dynasties unrelated to the great family of Chinggis Khan. Articles on the Blue Horde, the Mangghud, the Jalayir, Moghulistan, Timur, and the Qara’unas describe these Islamized Mongol epigones. The Mongols of today are descendants, however, of those who remained in East Asia during the Mongols’ Yuan dynasty. After 1368 those Mongols who had remained nomads in the heartland were joined by those expelled from China. Over the following centuries these Mongols created a unique culture of Buddhist nomads, receiving influences from Tibet, China, and the hunting peoples of Siberia and Manchuria and synthesizing them with their own pastoral nomadic traditions. For the Mongols of today, the culture of the empire period is only the beginning of their national history, one that continues in succeeding dynasties and confederations: the Northern Yuan, the Oirats, Zünghars, the Khalkha, and others. Articles on the Eight White Yurts, the 17th-century chronicles, Buddhist fine arts, the Second Conversion to Buddhism, and the great lineages of the “living Buddhas” give an orientation to the cultural and religious develop- ments of this era. By the 17th century, people of Mongolian origin had expanded again, forming the Upper Mongols in Tibet, the Daurs in Manchuria, the Buriats in Siberia, the Xinjiang Mongols in Turkestan, and the Kalmyks along the Volga in Europe. The encyclopedia devotes separate articles to each of these far-flung branches of the Mongol peoples as well as to the Khalkha and Inner Mongolian peoples that dominate the Mongol heartland. Other articles describe remnant populations stranded from Afghanistan to Manchuria by the receding tide of the 13th- and 14th- century world empire. While such groups, including the Mogholis, Dongxiang, and Tu (Monguor), are not part of the Mongolian community today, they do speak lan- guages related to Mongolian, and their history sheds light on the fate of the Mongol Empire. Entries on the Kazakhs, Tuvans, and Ewenkis describe non-Mongol peo- ples who have long been in contact with the Mongols and form minority populations on the Mongolian plateau. By 1771 almost all the Mongolian peoples had fallen under the rule of the Manchus, who also ruled China as its last Qing dynasty. Only the Buriats in Siberia and the Kalmyks in the southern Russian steppes came under Russian rule. Articles are devoted to the institutions that the Qing Empire used in ruling Mongolia, such as the fieflike banners, the leagues, and the ambans, or viceroys, who supervised them; other entries refer to social classes under the Qing dynasty and to the slow advance of Chinese colonization, trade and moneylending, and the influence of Chinese fiction. In the 20th century the Mongol peoples in both the Qing and czarist empires faced much more rapid coloniza- tion. Only the Khalkha, occupying “Outer Mongolia,” that is, the center of the Mongolian plateau, were able to form an independent nation, first declared in 1911 as a theocra- cy and now called the State of Mongolia. The communist regimes in Russia and China organized various autonomous units for the Mongol peoples within their borders, ones which still exist. Readers seeking informa- tion on the overall geography, economy, political system, ethnic and social makeup, and administrative histories of independent Mongolia or these autonomous units should turn first to articles under their contemporary names: Mongolia, State of; Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; Buriat Republic; Kalmyk Republic; Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Prefectures; Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture; and so on. The entry “Mongolia, State of” provides cross-references to the major personali- ties, events, periods, and institutions in the life of inde- pendent Mongolia from 1911 on. The major provinces and cities of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia are all given separate articles. The more important persons and events in Inner Mongolian and Buriat history are also given sepa- rate entries. Russia (or, in its communist avatar, the Soviet Union), China, and Japan have all exercised powerful influences on Mongolia, and articles treat each of these countries’ relations with modern Mongolia. The encyclopedia articles are organized alphabetical- ly. Titles of articles that begin in numerals are alphabet- ized by the first letter in the title. Cross-references to other articles are given in SMALL CAPITAL LETTERS. Suggestions for further reading are given at the end of articles for which important works exist. These are limit- ed to the English-language literature, although preference has been given to items with extensive and multilingual bibliographies. Ready reference to the major events in Mongolian history is provided by the chronology. Since Mongolia, China, and Russia all use the metric system, measurements and figures are provided first in metric units. The equivalents in the British/American system are only approximate and in most cases are derived from the original metric measurements. Given the wide variety of languages in which sources on Mongolian history have been written, it is understand- able that there is considerable variation in spellings. During the 20th century sources written in the Mongolian language itself have become more important as the Mongols have begun to write their own history. In this encyclopedia Mongolian spellings have been generally used. Despite the impression sometimes given, neither diacriticals (apart from the umlaut) nor unfamiliar signs are necessary to render Mongolian names satisfactorily in English. Nevertheless, the Mongolian language itself has undergone much change, and rigid adherence to either the medieval or the modern forms necessarily results in a great number of unfamiliar forms. On the other hand, the normally reasonable precept to use the most familiar spelling is impossible to follow consistently, since most names and terms exist in English in several spellings, no viii Introduction one of which has achieved clear predominance. Thus, the encyclopedia follows what is hoped is a reasonable com- promise of transcribing Mongolian consistently but in ways adapted to the broad changes of pronunciation in the differing eras of Mongolian history. In reverse order, from the present to the Middle Ages, the principles are as follows: 1. For geographical terms in Mongolia and for names of persons active after 1940, forms are based on the Cyrillic script, which was designed in 1941 and intro- duced as the official script in 1950. There is today considerable variation in the transcription of these terms, but based on pronunciation and historical con- siderations, I have used kh instead of h, z rather than dz, y rather than ï, and w rather than v. 2. For the period from around 1635 to 1940, the spellings are based on the Uighur-Mongolian script spellings with the modern pronunciation of its letters. Thus, kh is used for k/q and g for g/γ. Following the modern pronunciation in Khalkha Mongols, ch or ts is written for the scholarly wedgec, and j or z is written wedgej. Sh is used instead of wedges and before i. For the “broken i” and the intervocalic g/γ, which disappear in spoken pro- nunciation, the modern pronunciation is followed. Thus, Shara Nuur would be written for sir-a naγur. These rules are also generally followed for names and terms in Inner Mongolia, where the Uighur-Mongolian script is still used. 3. For the period from the fall of the Mongol Empire in 1368 to the rise of the Qing dynasty around 1635, the encyclopedia follows the Uighur-Mongolian script, as its pronunciation is seen in the transcriptions in the Chinese sources that form much of our knowledge of the period. This is similar to that in the period of 1635–1940, except that kh and gh are used before a, o, and u but k and g before e, i, ö, and ü. G is used at the end of a syllable. Ch is used for wedgec and j for wedgej. 4. For the period of the Mongol Empire, the spellings are based on the Uighur-Mongolian script as pronounced in the Mongolian language of the time. This pronunci- ation is particularly clearly represented in the invalu- able Persian sources. Compared with the preceding periods, q (not kh) and gh are used before a, o, or u, and q is used after those vowels. (Around other vow- els, k and g are used.) The apostrophe is used to mark the silent gh/g in words such as ba’urchi, “steward,” or “Hüle’ü”; the i is never “broken”; and the -y- is written out in diphthongs like sayin or Quyildar. Words used in Mongolian dialects or languages outside independent Mongolia are generally given in the form most appropriate according to the pronunci- ation. Buriat words and terms follow the Buriat Cyrillic script, while Kalmyk-Oirat words and terms follow either the modern Kalmyk Cyrillic script or the older clear script. The rendering of sounds in Kalmyk-Oirat is roughly as no. 3 above. Z is pro- nounced in Kalmyk-Oirat and Buriat like English z in zoo. Buriat zh is like the z in English azure. Kalymk- Oirat ä is like the a in American English at. It should be noted that the spelling of the great con- queror commonly known as Genghis Khan is given here throughout as Chinggis Khan, a usage that is historically correct and strongly preferred by the Mongolians them- selves and increasingly by Western writers on Mongolian history. The old spelling “Genghis” was occasioned in the 18th century by a misreading of the Persian sources. Pronounced in English with a completely unwarranted hard g at the beginning, this spelling has now become quite misleading. As a noun, Mongolians refers to citizens of independent Mongolia (“Outer Mongolia”), regardless of ethnicity, while Mongols refers to ethnic Mongols, regardless of citizenship. Chinese names and terms are given in the Pinyin sys- tem. It should be noted that in this system, x is pro- nounced like English sh, q like English ch, zh like English j, c like English ts, and z like English dz. Thus Qing is pronounced roughly like “ching,” Xu like “shoe,” Zhou like “Joe,” Chucai like “choot’s eye,” and Ze like “dzuh.” Mongolian words are spelled roughly as they sound. Stress is generally on the first syllable. Long vowels, which are written doubled, may be treated by the non-Mongolian speaker simply as strong stress. The pronunciation of con- sonants is roughly as in English, with the following excep- tions: 1) the medieval consonant q is like a k, only farther back in the throat; 2) gh (and even the modern g before the vowels a, o, and u) is much deeper than an English g and close to the uvular r in the French pronunciation of “au revoir”; 3) kh is like the ch in the German pronuncia- tion of “Bach”; 4) z is like the dz in English “adze”; 5) g is always hard, regardless of the following vowel. The vowels have changed greatly, and the modern pronunciations of several vowels are rather different from anything found in any European language. The following notes provide an approximate pronunciation: 1) a is like a in English “father”; 2) o is like the o in English “top”; 3) u sounds superficially like the o in English “toll” but is actually articulated farther back and lower down; 4) ö is pronounced something like the eu in French “feu”; 5) ü is pronounced like the English oo in “pool”; 6) short (sin- gle) e and i both approximate the i in English “kit”; 7) long (double) ee is like the a in English “dale”; 8) long (double) ii is like the ea in English “team.” In modern Mongolian, ai is pronounced