Living with Herds Human-Animal Coexistence in Mongolia by Natasha Fijn

LIVING WITH HERDS Human-Animal Coexistence in Mongolia Domestic animals have lived with humans for thousands of years and remain essen­ tial within the everyday lives of people throughout the world. In this book, Natasha Fijn examines the process of animal domestication in a study that blends biological and social anthropology, ethology, and ethnography. She examines the social behav­ ior of humans and animals in a contemporary Mongolian herding society. While liv­ ing with Mongolian herding families and their herd animals, Dr. Fijn observed both sides of the human-animal relationship. Examining their reciprocal social behavior and communication with one another, she demonstrates how herd animals influ­ ence Mongolian herders and how the animals themselves are active partners in the domestication process. Natasha Fijn is a researcher and observational filmmaker. Her main research focus is on human-animal interaction and social engagement. She currently lectures in Visual Culture Research at the Australian National University. Natasha has a back­ ground in anthropology, zoology, and wildlife filmmaking. She has worked with the BBC, Natural History New Zealand, and Green Umbrella Productions on wildlife documentaries and is now working as an independent filmmaker. LIVING WITH HERDS Human-Animal Coexistence in Mongolia NAT ASHA FIJN Australian National University .,,.,, . .,,, CAMBRIDGE . ::: UNIVERSITY PRESS INDIANA UNIVERSITY Vl Contents PART THREE: LIVING WITH HERDS 7 IN THE LAND OF THE HORSE · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . 151 Part I. The Horse in Mongolia's Past Part II. The Naadam 153 160 8 THE CYCLE OF LIFE: BIRTH TO DEATH, SPRING TO WINTER • 175 9 THE DOMESTIC AND THE WILD · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 201 10 THE SACRED ANIMAL '· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 221 CONCLUSION: CO-DOMESTIC LIVES Appendix References Index · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·, . 241 247 251 271 LISTS OF PLATES, FIGURES, MAPS, TABLES, AND ONLINE VIDEO SEGMENTS PLATES Spring Plates 1-8 precede page 1. L Brewing spring storm. 2. Feeding milk to a lamb with an ox horn. 3. Uuganaa with her new-born cal£ 4. Neighbouring herders combing cashmere from a goat. 5. Saikhanaa returning from herding. 6. Ewes and nannies nursing their young within an encampment. 7. Khorlo handling a two-year-old (byaruu). 8. Naraa milking a sarlag by hand. Summer Plates 9-16 precede page 53. 9. Tibetan script on carved stone. 10. Collecting firewood with oxen. IL Three jockeys resting between races. 12. Winning horse with medals. 13. Winning stallion with jockey and trainer. 14. Wrestling at a local Naadam. 15. Resting while out herding. 16. Deer stone (Bugan chuluu) lying out on the grassland. Autumn Plates 17-24 precede page 129. 17. Ulaanaa (Red) ox with a water cart. 18. Training a young ox. 19. Dogsomjav setting up the autumn encampment. Vlll Lists of Plates, Figures, Maps, Tables, and Online Video Segments 20. Horse hitching post and washing line. 21. Sacred Oviiii with stallion skulls. 22. Human out herding with horse, sheep, and goats. 23. Mongolian sarlag bull (Tarlan bukh ). 24. Ochero dismounting after the day's herding. Winter Plates 25-32 precede page 241. 25. Sacred lone tree in the valley. 26. Boy amongst sheep and goats. 27. Early lamb with children. 28. Snow falling inside ager. 29. Passing snuff, with the horse herd in the background. 30. Moving a sick sheep under shelter. 3 L Herding sheep and goats in winter. 32. Footprints leaving a neighbouring encampment. FIGURES El Key people related to Dogsomjav's encampment . page 6 E2 Key people related to Choijo's encampment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.1 Naraa's drawing of the Jargalant Valley . 58 4.1 Genealogy of a Mongolian horse . 84 4.2 Genealogy of a Mongolian cow 85 4.3 Mongolian cattle and sarlag hybridisation 89 4.4 Drawings of tamga symbols 94 5.1 Proportions of correct horse responses to herder vocalisations 116 5.2 Proportions of correct cattle responses to herder vocalisations 117 8.1 Seasonal calendar 176 8.2 Migratory movements between seasonal pastures 184 9.1 Conceptual diagram of wild-domestic spheres 203 10.1 Depiction of Maliin Banzuragch . 222. 10.2 Shaman's drawing of a seter animal . 233 MAPS El Mongolia . 2 E2 Bulgan field site 11 P.3 Arkhangai field site . 15 Lists of Plates, Figures, Maps, Tables, and Online Video Segments ix TABLES Animal numbers at the Bulgan field site · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 8 Rl 14 Animal numbers at the Arkhangai field site . · · · · · · · · · · · · ~ 2 69 3.1 Timeline of Mongolian horses · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 3.2 Timeline of Mongolian cattle . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 71 3.3 Timeline of Mongolian sheep and goats . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · 78 4.1 Terms for male and female herd animals, based on breeding status · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 86 4.2 Categorisation of ages of four kinds of herd animal · . · · · · · · · · · · 96 7 1 Astrological table for racehorses . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 164 · 167 7.2 Race categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · Appendix Tables A.I Categorisation of horse colours in Mongolia . · · · · · · · · · · · · 247 A.2 Medicinal plants for herd animals . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 249 ONLINE VIDEO SEGMENTS www.cambridge.org/ 9781107000902 1 Saikhanaa the Herder 2 Saikhanaa and the Calves 3 Saikhanaa and the Horses 4 Moving Encampments L Moving Encampments by Ox 2. Moving with the Herd Animals 5 Lhagva the Herder 6 A Day in the Life 7 Medicinal Treatment 8 Training for Naadam 9 TheNaadam 10 Vocalisation Dictionary GLOSSARY i. General Mongolian terms Ail one family's home Am mouth Am'd Am'tan A rat Arkhangai Baigal Baigal' gazar Baigal' orchin Bulgan Deel Emdom Ger Geriin tejeever Im Jakhdag Khadag Khangai Khirigsuur Khot ail Khusuur Mal Ma/chin Maliin banzuragch anything that lives or is animate animal ( often wild) folk method of breeding livestock Mongolian province within the Khangai; an area of one of the field sites nature landscape or place environment Mongolian province within the Khangai; an area of one of the field sites a long garment, similar to a coat or dress magical medicinal cure; medicinal home remedy home, that is, a nomadic tent, equivalent to the yurt to feed or nurture within the domestic sphere earmark or symbol a lock of hair blue, silk sash Mongolia's central mountainous region ancient stone monument and grave site of Turkic origin family encampment, domestic sphere scraper, made from wood or pelican beak; used for scrap­ ing sweat from horses or as a brush for dislodging dirt from a horse domestic animal or herd animal herder God who protects the five kinds of animals XI Xll Mal siireg Morin Khuur Naadam Negdel Otor 6voo Saalchin Set er Shilbuur Soijakh Tamga Tavan khoshuu mal Tengger Tsagaan Sar Tsetserleg Udgan Uurga Zud Zus to herd Mongolian horse-head fiddle festival or celebration Glossary a cooperative or a communal farm during the Soviet era a temporary camp where herd animals graze on better pastures sacred rock cairn on prominent mountain top milker Sacred or holy animal (Tibetan, tsehtar) elongated whip hardening animals for winter brand or stamp on horse's hindquarters and the branding iron itself the five kinds of animal the sky, the heavens, a god, the weather White Month, or Mongolian New Year celebration garden; central town in Arkhangai Province a woman shaman or healer horse lasso-pole severe weather during winter external features; coat colour ii. Mongolian dairy products 1 A arts Aaruul Ai rag Byas lag curds from sour milk, made from boiled yoghurt with a portion of milk: The curds are placed in cotton cloth and pressed between boards to remove the whey. May be stored in sheep stomach and used during the winter. curds that are pressed, sliced, and then dried, with or with­ out sugar added: They are dried on a board in the open air on the roof of the ger, or hung inside above the fire­ place. Yak aaruul is made into larger portions and contains a higher fat content. fermented mare's milk, known as “white beer“ or “koumiss“: Fresh mare's milk is poured into a cowskin bag. Milk is added to an initial culture throughout the day and then churned 800-1,000 times and left to ferment overnight. Airag has a sweet-sour taste and fragrant smell. cheese made from warm milk with a small portion of yoghurt: After the milk turns to curd, the mixture is placed 1 For more detailed information regarding some of these dairy products, see Indra (2003). Glossary Eezgii Nermel Shar tos Suutei tsai Ta rag Tsagaan tos Tseghe Tsotgii Tsotgiin tos Uurag X111 in cotton cloth and pressed between boards to remove the whey ( the cheese is not salted or aged the way many cheeses are). yoghurt added to milk to become sour, to curdle: Eezgii is the residue on the bottom after boiling. distilled spirit from fermented milk: The fermented milk is placed in a wooden barrel and repeatedly heated to distil a liquor from the condensation that forms inside the barrel. The liquor has an alcohol content of approximately 10-12 percent. thick cream: Milk is heated and aerated with a ladle and left to congeal for twelve to twenty-four hours; then the cream is scooped off the top. The substance is often eaten with bread, tea, and deep-fried dough for breakfast. “yellow oil,“ or boiled butter: It is made from fermented cream that has been stored in sheep stomach or wooden tubs. brick tea made with milk and salt: The mixture is poured from a height until the milk has homogenised. yoghurt: It is made from a portion of previous yoghurt cul­ ture added to warm milk, covered with cloth overnight to activate the culture. Obtained from cow, goat, and sheep milk in summer. “white oil,“ derived from fermented cream: Boiled butter is mixed with eezgii and flour, hot tea, or water. It is often eaten with sugar. milk-based alcoholic drink similar to airag but made from cow, sheep, or goat milk: Milk or water is often added to the drink to reduce sourness. unboiled milk made into cream: It is made from cow, sheep, and goat milk. butter: It is made from tsotgii. colostrum, or rich protein milk after the birth of young: It solidifies into a creamy, jelly-like consistency, slightly sweet and similar to egg in taste. iii. Key animal terms 2 Aduu Mongolian horse Argali mountain sheep 2 For a dictionary of Mongolian animal husbandry terms, refer to Dorjgotov (1999). XlV Azarga Bod Bog Bukh Byaruu Daaga Em khon' Emyamaa Er byaruu Gunj Guu I reg Khainag Khu ts Mor' Orto om Sarlag Serkh Shar Takhi Temee Ugjikh Ukhna Yangir Glossary stallion, uncastrated male horse ( also a horse herd, includ­ ing a stallion with mares and young) horses, camels, and “large cattle,“ such as yak sheep and goats bull, or uncastrated male horse two-year-old cattle two-year-old horse ewe, female sheep nanny, or female goat bullock, or young male cattle heifer, or a young cow that has not yet calved mare, or female horse wether, or castrated male sheep cross-breed between a yak and a cow ram, or male sheep gelding, or castrated male horse second-generation cross between yak and cow yak, including both male and females wether, or castrated male goat ox, or castrated male bovine (yak, yak-cow hybrid, Mongolian cattle) Asiatic wild horse - known as Przewalski's horse Bactrian camel bottle-fed lamb or kid buck ( or billy), or a male goat mountain goat iv. Key behavioural terms Aashtai moody, bad tempered, ill bred, momentarily angry Agsam mor' a horse with mettle, or spirited and lively Darkhlakh protector of the herd Dogshin impolite, difficult to control, perhaps violent, fearful, Dolgoon Emneg Erkh Khangal Khatuu amtai unbroken horse ( opposite of nomkhon) calm, peaceful ( dolgoon aash is an animal with a gentle dis­ position; Dolgoon is also a common name) untamed, similar to khangal ( often applied to oxen) self-willed, pampered (but can also mean “tame“ with animals, or “spoilt“ in relation to children) wild, untamed, untrained, unbroken horse hard-mouthed horse, or a horse that pulls on the reins and is unresponsive Glossary Khatuu khamtai Khenz Khongon kholtei Muu Nomkhon Omgolon Oroo Sain Sergelin Shildeg Shiruun Shudenge mor' Tai van Tolgoilogch Tsogio mor' Zalkhuu Zerleg Zoolon amtai Zoolon khamtai xv hard-nosed ox, unresponsive to signals individual animal that is small and cute, literally meaning “late born“ easy riding horse, or an ox that is light footed and quick stepping bad, not good, useless, evil ( or muukhai when the animal butts and kicks) tame, quiet, calm or placid (key word to indicate a good animal; the antonym of aashtai) restive, impulsive, difficult, arrogant, or haughty shy, elusive ( often in relation to horses, oroo dogshin means spirited whereas oroo khuljaa means a runaway horse) good, fine, kind, or nice quick witted, alert, or astute (sergelin galzuu can mean “a bit crazy“) selected, the best; used in relation to racehorses tough, rude, rough, violent behaviour (similar to omgolon and aashtai) green, or newly broken-in horse ( also referred to as sain nomkhroo ugui mor) calm, gentle, peaceful (similar to dolgoon) leader horse that is a galloper lazy, or idle wild, or not habituated to humans ( can also mean “crazy“) soft-mouthed horse, quiet when ridden ( similarly referred to as am zoolon surguul'tai, as a manageable, or trained horse) soft-nosed ox, quiet and easy to pull along or hitch behind a cart stubborn or obstinate ( often a loner) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I will begin by thanking the first Mongolian family I met, Nyamdorj's family, who resided in Canberra, Australia. Delgermaa gave me lessons in Mongolian and translated for me, even though she was often busy. I am deeply indebted to many people in Mongolia for their willingness to accept me into their lives and for their unbounded hospitality. Thanks to T uul for taking me in when I needed accommodation in Ulaanbaatar and involving rne with all of her family. She and her family were always welcoming when I arrived at short notice from one of my field sites, or even after I had been absent for more than a year. There are many people that showed me great kindness and helped make my life easier in Mongolia, even in small ways. It is due to this unbridled hos­ pitality that I had a remarkably untroubled field experience, as I felt safe and never felt ill at ease while living in Choijo's or Dogsomjav's encampments. I could not have written this book without the daily communication and engagement I experienced with the herd animals while I was in Mongolia, whom I came to know as individuals and as real characters and personalities. Thanks to Choijo's extended family for their acceptance of me into their lives, for allowing me to film, to ask endless questions, participate in herding activities, ride their valuable horses, and live in their ger. Here, I would par­ ticularly like to extend my gratitude to Naraa, who accepted me as a daugh­ ter. I