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OUR GREAT QING Th e Mongols, Buddhism and the State in Late Imperial China JOHAN ELVERSKOG Although it is generally believed that the Manchus controlled the Mongols through their patronage of Tibetan Buddhism, scant attention has been paid to the Mon- gol view of the Qing imperial project. In contrast to other accounts of Manchu rule, Our Great Qing focuses not only on what images the metropole wished to project onto Mongolia, but also on what images the Mongols themselves acknowledged. Rather than accepting the Manchu’s use of Buddhism, Johan Elverskog begins by questioning the static, unhistorical, and hegemonic view of political life implicit in the Buddhist explanation. By stressing instead the fl uidity of identity and Bud- dhist practice as processes continually developing in relation to state formations, this work explores how Qing policies were understood by Mongols and how they came to see themselves as Qing subjects. In his investigation of Mongol society on the eve of the Manchu conquest, Elverskog reveals the distinctive political theory of decentralization that fostered the civil war among the Mongols. He explains how it was that the Manchu Great Enterprise was not to win over “Mongolia” but was instead to create a unifi ed Mongol community of which the disparate preexisting communi- ties would merely be component parts. To foster this change, Manchu rulers sought religious sanction “from above” through the cult of Chinggis Khan and with this mandate set about to restructure the cult itself and the Mongol aristocrats as mem- bers of a unifi ed empire. As a result, the Mongol nobility came to see themselves (Continued on back fl ap) (Continued from front fl ap) as representing a single community that had been rescued by the gracious Manchu rulers during the civil wars of the early sev- enteenth century. A key element fostering this change was the Qing court’s promo- tion of Gelukpa orthodoxy, which not only transformed Mongol historical narratives and rituals but also displaced the earlier vernacular Mongolian Buddhism. Finally, Elverskog demonstrates how this eigh- teenth-century conception of a Mongol community, ruled by an aristocracy and nourished by a Buddhist emperor, gave way to a pan-Qing solidarity of all Bud- dhist peoples against Muslims and Chris- tians and to local identities that united for the fi rst time aristocrats with commoners in a new Mongol Buddhist identity on the eve of the twentieth century. By providing an intellectual history of Mongol self-representations in late im- perial China, Our Great Qing off ers an insightful analysis of the principal changes that Mongolian concepts of community, rule, and religion underwent from 1500 to 1900 while off ering new insights into Qing and Buddhist history. It will be essential reading for a range of diff erent audiences, from those working specifi cally in Sino- Inner Asian history to those interested more broadly in the history of empires, their peripheries, and the role of religion in communal and state formations. Johan Elverskog is assistant professor in the Department of Religious Studies at Southern Methodist University. EL VER S K O G Chinese history / Buddhism “Johan Elverskog has rewritten the political and intellectual history of Mongolia from the bottom up, telling a convincing story that clarifi es for the fi rst time the revolutions which Mongolian concepts of com- munity, rule, and religion underwent from 1500 to 1900. His account of Qing rule in Mongolia doesn’t just tell us what images the Qing em- perors wished to project, but also what images the Mongols accepted themselves, and how these changed over the centuries. In the scope of time it covers, the originality of the views advanced, and the accu- racy of the scholarship upon which it is based, Our Great Qing seems destined to mark a watershed in Mongolian studies. It will be essential reading for specialists in Mongolian studies and will make an impor- tant contribution and riposte to the ‘new Qing history’ now changing the face of late imperial Chinese history. Specialists in Tibetan Bud- dhism and Buddhism’s interaction with the political realm will also fi nd this work challenging and thought-provoking.” —Christopher Atwood, Indiana University “In a sweeping overview of four centuries of Mongolian history that draws on previously untapped sources, Johan Elverskog opens up to- tally new perspectives on some of the most urgent questions historians have recently raised about the role of Buddhism in the constitution of the Qing empire. Th eoretically informed and strongly comparative in approach, Elverskog’s work tells a fascinating and important story that will interest all scholars working at the intersection of religion and politics.” —Mark Elliott, Harvard University Jacket illustration: An offi cial document dated 1832 that describes cases of insurgency and robbery in Inner Mongolia and requests the help of lamas in the area in suppressing these violations against law and order. Source: Mong. 502 from Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen, Denmark. Jacket design by Santos Barbasa Jr. UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I PRESS Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822-1888 ISBN-13: 978-0-8248-3021-2 ISBN-10: 0-8248-3021-0 www.uhpress.hawaii.edu OUR GR E A T QIN G Our Great Qing Our Great Qing The Mongols, Buddhism and the State in Late Imperial China Johan Elverskog University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu © 2006 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 11 10 09 08 07 06 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data Elverskog, Johan. Our great Qing : the Mongols, Buddhism and the state in late imperial China / Johan Elverskog. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8248-3021-2 (hbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8248-3021-0 (hbk. : alk. paper) 1. Mongols—History. 2. Buddhism. 3. China—History—Qing dynasty, 1644–1912. I. Title. DS19.E58 2006 951'.03—dc22 2006012482 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. Designed by University of Hawai‘i production staff Printed by the Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group Now one of the most obscure of our institutions is that of the empire itself. In Peking, naturally, at the imperial court, there is some clarity to be found on this subject, though even that is more elusive than real. Also the teachers of political law and history in the schools of higher learning claim to be exactly informed on these matters, and to be capable of passing on their knowledge to their students. The farther one descends among the lower schools the more, naturally enough, does one ¤nd teachers’ and pupils’ doubts of their own knowledge vanishing, and super¤cial culture mounting sky-high around a few precepts that have been drilled into people’s minds for centuries, precepts which, though they have lost nothing of their eternal truth, remain eternally invisible in this fog of confusion. But it is precisely this question of the empire which in my opinion the common people should be asked to answer, since after all they are the empire’s ¤nal support. —Franz Kafka, The Great Wall of China vii Contents Acknowledgments /xi Note on Transcription / xiii Mongol Reign Periods /xv Qing Reign Periods /xvi Introduction / 1 1. The Mongols on the Eve of Conquest / 14 2. The Mongols and Political Authority / 40 3. Qing Ornamentalism and the Cult of Chinggis Khan / 63 4. The Poetics, Rituals and Language of Being Mongol, Buddhist and Qing / 90 5. The Buddhist Qing and Mongol Localization in the Nineteenth Century / 127 Epilogue / 166 Notes /171 List of Tibetan Spellings / 207 Chinese Character Glossary / 209 References / 211 Index / 235 Till minnet av min far xi Acknowledgments This book is about challenging conventional narratives, thus I would like to begin by thanking my family. Nothing would have been possible without them. My mother’s support through the years is beyond ¤lial recompense; and, for in- spiring me in so many ways, I dedicate this book to the memory of my father. My brothers have also always challenged me, and perhaps more important, brought me down to earth. And the wider family, from Sweden to Finland to Serbia, has always helped in putting into perspective the important things in life. Last, Liljana and Sebastian have done so much for me it is simply beyond words. What follows, however, is a collection of words. It has appeared in many avatars. Its initial incarnation was as a dissertation; thus for their teaching, guid- ance and help throughout the years I thank my advisors, Christopher Atwood, György Kara, Jan Nattier, Elliot Sperling and Lynne Struve. I would also like to thank my many other teachers at Indiana University, especially Stephen Boken- kamp, Robert Campany, Larry Clark, Roger Janelli, Larry Moses, Robert Orsi and Michael Walter. Moreover, having now spent a few years on the other side of the desk and grappled with the pleasures and perils of teaching, I would like to thank my earlier teachers who helped foster my particular path: Gerald Berreman, James Carse, Alan Dundes, Robert Goldman, P.S.Jaini, Mark Juergensmeyer, Clara Sue Kidwell, Lewis Lancaster, Karen McCarthy-Brown, Jan Muhammad and Richard Payne. Many others, some knowingly others unwittingly, have also helped me in various ways in the writing of this book. For all their help in reading through ear- lier drafts, raising questions at conferences, sharing with me their own work and generally helping me re¤ne my thinking I thank Brian Baumann, Lubos Belka, Patricia Berger, Uradyn Bulag, Isabelle Charleux, Coyiji, Pamela Crossley, Mark Elliott, Caroline Humphrey, Inoue Osamu, Matthew Kapstein, Kim Songsuu, John Krueger, Peter Marsh, Ellen McGill, James Millward, Aleksandr Naymark, Peter Perdue, Sarah Schneewind, Bruce Tindall, Nikolay Tsyrempilov, Gray Tuttle, Joanna Waley-Cohen, John Wills and all my colleagues at SMU. I also thank the wonderful staff at the University of Hawai‘i Press, especially Patricia Crosby and Ann Ludeman, for making the ¤nal stretch of this project such a joy. I am also grateful to several organizations whose funding through the years has made my work possible. I thank Dwight Reynolds for arranging my xii / Acknowledgments stay at the Interdisciplinary Humanities Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1997–1998. I am also grateful for the funding I received from the American Council of Learned Societies that enabled me to conduct re- search in Inner Mongolia in 1998–1999. I also thank the University Research Council of Southern Methodist University and Felix Chen for providing fund- ing that enabled me to return to Inner Mongolia, and to visit archives in Mon- golia and Europe. In these travels I have become indebted to a number of libraries and their staffs. I would especially like to thank all the people who helped with my work in Hohhot at the libraries of the Academy of Social Sciences, Inner Mongolia University and the Inner Mongolia Library. In Ulaanbaatar I thank the staff of the State Library for allowing me to work there while it was being renovated. I also thank Anne Buchardi at the Royal Library in Copenhagen and Håkan Wahl- quist at the Ethnographic Museum in Stockholm. And ¤nally, here at SMU, I thank Billie Stovall for patiently handling my endless interlibrary loan requests. Needless to say, all remaining errors and erroneous interpretations are my responsibility alone. xiii Note on Transcription For ease of reading, Mongolian and Tibetan words and names are transcribed according to a simpli¤ed phonetic system. I have adopted the Atwood system for transcribing Mongolian (2002: xv–xvi), which both simpli¤es the various philological systems and re¶ects dialectical differences. I have also simpli¤ed the forms of the troublesome terms qaγan and qan. Herein it is always written as khan. When there is a speci¤c hierarchical distinction being made between qaγan (Manchu emperor) and qan (Mongol prince or lord), this is noted. In the Bibliography the philological system is used. For Tibetan, I have adopted the THDL Simpli¤ed Phonetic system created by David Germano and Nicolas Tournadre. Written forms of Tibetan words using the Wylie transcription system are given in the word list at the end of the book. Chinese words and names are transcribed according to the pinyin system of romanization. Manchu words are transcribed according to the system intro- duced by Hans Conon von der Gabelentz, also used by Möllendorff in A Manchu Grammar (Shanghai, 1892). All transliterations from the Sanskrit follow stan- dard lexicographical usage. And ¤nally, all translations are my own unless other- wise indicated. xv Mongol Reign Periods Chakhar Dayan Khan 1480?–1517? Bodi Alag Khan 1518?–1548? Daraisun Küdeng Khan 1548–1557 Tümen Jasagtu Khan 1558–1592 Buyan Khangarjai 1593–1603 Ligdan Khan 1604–1636 Tümed Altan Khan 1521–1582 Sengge Düüreng Khan 1583–1585 Namudai Sechen Khan 1586–1607 Boshugtu Khung Taiji 1608–1636 Ordos Barsu-Bolod d. 1521 Mergen Jinong d. 1542 Noyandara Jinong 1543–1572 Buyan Baatur Taiji 1573–1576 Boshugtu Jinong 1577–1624 Erinchen Jinong 1624–1636 Khalkha Tüshiyetü Khans Abatai Khan 1567–1588 Eriyekhei Mergen Khan 1589–? Gombodorji Khan d. 1655 Chakhun Dorji Khan 1654–1698 xvi / Mongol Reign Periods Jasagtu Khans Laikhur Khan ? Subandai Khan ? Norbu Bisireltü Khan d. 1661 Wangchug Mergen Khan 1661–1662 Chambun Khan 1670?– Zenggün ? Shara d. 1687 Sechen Khans Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan 1577–1652 Baba Sechen Khan 1653–? Sechen Khan d. 1686 xvii Qing Reign Periods Tianming / Tengri-yin Bosogtu 1616–1626 Tiancong / Tengri-yin Sechen 1627–1635 Chongde / Deedü Erdemtü 1636–1643 Shunhzi / Eyeber Jasagchi 1644–1661 Kangxi / Engke Amuulang 1662–1722 Yongzheng / Nairaltu Töb 1723–1735 Qianlong / Tengri Tedkügci 1736–1795 Jiaqing / Saisiyal Irügeltü 1796–1820 Daoguang / Törö Gereltü 1821–1850 Xianfeng / Tügümel Elbegtü 1851–1861 Tongzhi / Bürintü Jasagchi 1862–1874 Guangxu / Badaragultu Törö 1875–1908 Xuantong / Kebtü Yosutu 1909–1911 1 Introduction “Listen, my dear Trotta!” said the Kaiser. “The whole business is rather awkward. But neither of us comes off all that badly. Let it be!” “Your Majesty,” replied the captain, “it’s a lie!” —Joseph Roth, The Radetzky March On July 15, 1779, the Sixth Panchen Lama, Lozang Penden Yeshé, rode out from Zhikatsé to attend the seventieth birthday celebrations of the Qianlong emperor. He was accompanied by a large entourage of ¤ve hundred monks, escorted by a battalion of one hundred soldiers, and nearly a thousand servants and clerks came along to help the highest-ranking incarnate lama on his travels from cen- tral Tibet to Chengde, the Manchu’s summer palace north of Beijing. 1 Before leaving Tibet the Panchen Lama and his group were feted by local Tibetan elites headed by the young Dalai Lama, whom the Panchen Lama had ordained